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THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  EXTEMPORE 
SPEAKING 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO    •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA  •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd= 

TORONTO 


THE   ESSENTIALS  OF 
EXTEMPORE  SPEAKING 


BY 

JOSEPH  A.  MOSHER,  Ph.  D. 

DEPARTMENT    OF     PUBLIC    SPEAKING,    COLLEGE     OF    THE    CITY     OF 
NEW    YORK;    SPECIAL   LECTURER   ON    EXTEMPORE    SPEAK- 
ING, ADVERTISING  CLUB  OF  NEW  YORK,  AND  AUTHOR 
OF  "the  ESSENTIALS  OF  EFFECTIVE  GESTURE  " 


Npuj  fork 
THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1927 

All  rtgiJi  raeived 


1 4849H 


Copyright,  1917 

By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  September,  1917. 


PREFACE 

The  following  pages  aim  to  embody  in  clear 
and  concise  form  the  essentials  of  practical,  ex- 
tempore speaking.  No  attempt  is  made  to  add 
to  the  bibliography  of  oratory,  which  is  already 
adequate.  This  can  hardly  be  said,  however,  of 
the  bibliography  of  practical  address.  A  few  ad- 
mirable books  on  this  phase  of  public  speaking 
have  appeared  within  recent  years,  but  much 
that  is  helpful  in  the  way  of  new  viewpoints  and 
new  methods  of  presentation  remains  to  be  writ- 
ten. To  distinguish  between  the  aim  of  the  writer 
on  oratory  and  the  purpose  of  the  present  treatise, 
I  quote  from  a  book,*  recently  republished  in 
this  country,  which  represents  the  oratorical  view- 
point: 

"Once  face  to  face,  and  at  grappling  point 
with  his  idea,  he  [the  orator]  will  forget  every- 
thing else.  He  will  no  longer  see  anything  save 
the  thought  which  he  has  to  manifest,  the  feeling 
of  his  heart  which  he  has  to  communicate.  His 
voice,  which  just  now  was  so  tremulous  and 
broken,    will    acquire   assurance,    authority,    bril- 

*  "The  Art  of  Extempore  Speaking,"  by  Abbe  Bautain. 

V 


VI 


Preface 


liancy;  if  he  Is  rightly  Inspired  that  day,  if  light 
from  on  high  beams  In  his  Intelligence  and  warms 
his  soul,  his  eyes  will  shoot  lightning,  and  his 
voice  the  thunderbolt;  his  countenance  will  shine 
like  the  sun,  and  the  weakness  of  humanity  will 
undergo  Its  transfiguration.  He  will  stand  on 
the  Mount  Tabor  of  eloquence." 

The  above  represents  a  noble  and  Inspiring 
conception  of  the  speaker;  to  say  anything  further 
on  that  phase  of  the  subject  would,  I  am  afraid, 
be  in  the  nature  of  an  anti-climax.  But  such 
a  point  of  view  Is  not  calculated  to  minister  to  the 
requirements  of  the  great  body  of  students, 
teachers,  lawyers,  doctors,  businessmen,  and  simi- 
lar everyday  people  who  will  never  have  occasion 
to  scale  the  heights  of  eloquence,  but  who  often 
need  to  express  their  ideas  clearly,  forcefully,  and 
attractively  to  their  fellowmen.  It  Is  to  such 
that  the  following  pages  are  addressed. 

The  material  used  represents,  in  the  main,  a 
condensation  and  arrangement  of  the  notes  and 
criticisms  which  the  writer  has  found  most  helpful 
to  classes  during  ten  years  devoted  chiefly  to 
helping  men — students,  business  and  professional 
men — to  develop  their  ability  to  speak  eiTectlvely. 
One  of  the  convictions  which  this  experience  has 
instilled  Is  that  in  teaching  public  speaking  It  Is 
easy  to  play  a  part  in  making  "over-Instruction 
the  bane  of  modern  education,"  as  Professor  A.  M. 


Preface  vii 

Hitchcock  has  trenchantly  put  it.  Too  many 
details,  too  much  insistence  on  the  delicate  shades 
of  effect,  either  in  lectures  or  text-books,  are  apt 
to  discourage  and  confuse  the  student.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  subject  may  be  presented  in  such 
a  vague  and  sketchy  way  as  to  provide  him  with 
no  substantial  guiding  principles  and  aids  in  the 
actual  practice  of  speaking,  which  must,  of  course, 
constitute  the  backbone  of  his  training.  The 
writer  has  tried  to  avoid  these  extremes,  and 
hopes  that  the  result  may  be  of  service  to  those 
who  are  interested  in  practical,  extempore  address. 

J.  A.  M. 
New  York  City,  June,  1917. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Page 

Preface v 

CHAPTER  I 

OVERCOMING    THE    DREAD    OF    SPEAKING    IN    PUBLIC 

A.  The  Dread  of  Speaking  in  Public I 

B.  Overcoming  the  Causes  of  Dread 2 

I.  "Stage-fright" 2 

II.  Misconception  of  the  Speaker's  Task 4 

III.  Poor  Preparation 6 

C.  Summary 8 

CHAPTER  II 

THE    FUNCTIONS    OF   THE    PARTS    OF   A    SPEECH 

A.  The  Divisions  of  a  Speech ^o 

B.  The  Functions  of  the  Introduction 10 

I.  Gaining  the  Attention 10 

II.  Arousing  the  Interest 11 

III.  Presenting  the  Main  Theme 12 

IV.  Transition  to  the  Development 12 

C.  The  Functions  of  the  Development 13 

I.  Emphasizing  the  Main  Theme 13 

II.  Producing  Conviction 14 

III.  Establishing  Distinct  Salient  Points 14 

IV.  Holding  the  Listeners'  Interest  and  Sympathy  14 

ix 


X  Table  of  Contents 

Page 

D,  The  Functions  of  the  Conclusion 15 

I.  Rounding  Out  the  Speech 16 

II.  CHnching  the  Central  Idea 16 

III.  Arousing  Enthusiasm  and  Exhorting  to  Action  16 

E.  Summary 17 


CHAPTER  III 

INTRODUCING    A    SPEECH 

A.  Collecting  One's  Forces 18 

B.  Avoiding  the  Threadbare  Apology 19 

C.  Effective  Openings 20 

I.  Reference  to  Attendant  Circumstances 20 

II.  Complimentary  Opening 21 

III.  Narrative-Descriptive  Opening 22 

IV.  The  Literary  Reference 25 

V.  Allusion  to  Timely  Remark  or  Incident 27 

D.  Presenting  the  Subject 27 

E.  Introduction  under  Special  Circumstances 28 

I.  Determined  by  the  Subject 28 

II.  Determined  by  the  Audience 29 

F.  Summary 3 1 

CHAPTER  IV 

THE   MEANS    OF    SUBSTANTIAL   DEVELOPMENT 

A.  Determining  the  Main  Theme 35 

B.  Supporting  the  Main  Theme 36 

C.  Means  of  Elaboration 38 

I.  Specific  Cases 38 


Table  of  Contents  xi 

Page 

II.  Antecedent  Probability 42 

III.  Analogy 42 

IV.  Effect  to  Cause 43 

V.  Cause  to  Effect 45 

VI.  From  General  to  Specific 46 

VII.  Narration-Description 48 

VIII.  Definition 48 

a.  By  Repetition 49 

b.  By  Comparison  or  Contrast 50 

c.  By  Negation 51 

d.  By  Concrete  Example 53 

e.  By  Details 55 

D.  Summary 57 


CHAPTER  V 

ARRANGING    THE    MATERIAL 

A.  Logical  Methods  of  Arrangement 59 

I.  Cause  and  Effect 59 

II.  Chronological  Order 61 

III.  Space  Order 62 

IV.  Predetermined  Analysis 65 

B.  Arrangement  on  a  Psychological  Basis 67 

I.  Simple  or  Familiar  to  Complex  or  Unfamiliar  67 

II.  Association  of  Ideas 67 

C.  Arrangement  for  Special  Effects 69 

I.  Special  Interests 69 

II.  Submerging  Minor  Points 70 

III.  Placing  the  Most  Important  Phase 71 

D.  Summary 73 


xii  Table  of  Contents 

Page 
CHAPTER  VI 

CONCLUDING    A    SPEECH 

A.  The  Effect  of  Completeness 75 

B.  Clinching  the  Central  Idea "jd 

C.  The  Emotional  Appeal 76 

D.  Exhorting  to  Action 80 

E.  Summary 81 

CHAPTER  VII 

PREPARATION    FOR   A    SPEECH 

A.  General  Preparation 83 

B.  Specific  Preparation 84 

I.  Investigation 84 

a.  Making  a  Bibliography 85 

b.  Reading  and  Note-taking 88 

c.  Adjusting  the  Notes 91 

II.  Outlining 91 

C.  Summary 96 


CHAPTER  VIII 

EFFECTIVE    STYLE    IN    SPEECH    COMPOSITION 

A.  Unity loi 

B.  Coherence 104 

I.  Coherent  Thought 104 

II.  Coherent  Expression 105 


Table  of  Contents  xiii 

Page 

C.  Clearness 109 

I.  Simplicity no 

II.  Directness II2 

D.  Force 114 

I.  Arrangement 115 

II.  Choice  of  Words 117 

a.  Simplicity 117 

b.  Precision 118 

c.  Vocabulary  Building 119 

III.  Illustration 121 

IV.  Proportion 123 

a.  Causes  of  Bad  Proportion 123 

b.  Emphasis  by  Proportion 124 

E.  Attractiveness — A  Special  Quality 125 

I.  Figures  of  Speech 127 

II.  Wit  and  Humor 128 

III.  Variety  in  Sentence  Structure 132 

F.  Summary 134 

CHAPTER  IX 

THE    PERSONALITY   OF   THE    SPEAKER 

A.  Self-confidence 138 

I.  The  Basis  of  Self-confidence 139 

II.  Means  of  Development 140 

B.  Sincerity 140 

C.  Charm 142 

I.  Modesty 142 

II.  Geniality 143 

III.  Tact 146 

D.  Summary 148 


xiv  Table  of  Contents 

Page 
CHAPTER  X 

THE    speaker's    ATTITUDE   TOWARD   HIS    SUBJECT 

A.  Familiarity  with  the  Subject 150 

B.  A  Spirit  of  Fairness 152 

C.  A  Marked  Degree  of  Interest 157 

D.  Summary 160 

CHAPTER  XI 

THE    speaker's    ATTITUDE    TOWARD    HIS    AUDIENCE 

A.  Alertness 162 

B.  Friendliness 163 

C.  The  Will  to  Convince  and  Persuade 166 

D.  A  Spirit  of  Helpfulness 167 

E.  Summary 170 

CHAPTER  XII 

THE   VOICE    FACTOR 

A.  Pronunciation 173 

B.  The  Question  of  Indistinctness 175 

I.  Running  Words  Together 175 

II.  Speaking  in  the  Throat 176 

III.  Speaking  with  the  Mouth  Closed 176 

IV.  Faulty  Articulation 177 

C.  Modulation 179 

I.  Pleasing  Expression 179 

a.  Voice  Quality 179 

b.  Inflection 181 

c.  Force  and  Rate 182 


Table  of  Contents  xv 

Page 

II.  Clear  and  Forceful  Expression 183 

a.  Modulations  of  Quality 183 

b.  Modulations  of  Pitch  and  Force 184 

c.  Modulations  of  Rate 186 

D.  Summary 187 


CHAPTER  XIII 

EXPRESSIVE    GESTURE 

A.  Gesture  Defined 191 

B.  Normal  Position 192 

C.  Shifting  the  Position 192 

D.  Expression  with  the  Head  and  Face 193 

E.  Gestures  of  the  Arms  and  Hands 194 

I.  Manual  Gestures  and  Common  Sense 194 

II.  The  Scope  of  Manual  Gestures 196 

a.  Forms  of  the  Hand 197 

b.  Positions  of  the  Hand 197 

c.  Using  Both  Hands 199 

III.  Essential  Characteristics  of  Effective  Gesture  199 

a.  Aptness 199 

b.  Accuracy  of  Timing 200 

c.  Spontaneity 202 

F.  Summary 203 

CHAPTER  XIV 

Conclusion 205 


THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  EXTEMPORE 
SPEAKING 


The  Essentials  of  Extempore 
Speaking 


CHAPTER  I 

OVERCOMING  THE   DREAD   OF  SPEAKING 
IN    PUBLIC 

A.  The  Dread  of  Speaking  in  Public 

There  may  be  plenty  of  "big"  speakers  but  the 
average  man,  young  or  old,  educated  or  unedu- 
cated, experiences  an  unpleasant  sensation  when 
asked  to  talk  In  public.  Often  he  flatly  refuses 
such  an  Invitation,  and  If  pressed,  perjures  himself 
in  offering  excuses  which  may  effect  his  escape. 
Sometimes  for  business  or  social  reasons  he  cannot 
evade  the  necessity  of  addressing  an  audience. 
Then  comes  a  period  of  worry,  premonition  of 
failure,  and  dread.  His  brain  is  agitated  with  the 
recollection  of  anecdotes  and  the  construction  of 
apologies  for  the  poor  speech  which  he  expects  to 
make.  Finally,  the  average  man  gets  through  with 
the  thing  somehow  and  again  resumes  his  peace  of 
mind.     Surely  at  a   time  when  public  utterance 

I 


2     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

affords  so  many  opportunities  for  helping  one's 
self  and  others,  this  situation  is  to  be  deplored. 

B.  Overcoming  the  Causes  of  Dread 

If  we  are  to  overcome  this  dread  we  must  attack 
its  causes.  These  fall  mainly  under  three  heads: 
the  anticipation  of  "stage-fright,"  a  mistaken  idea 
of  what  is  expected  of  a  speaker,  and  poor  prep- 
aration. 

I.  "  Stage-frighr 

The  embarrassment  felt  upon  facing  an  audience 
is  not  to  be  laughed  away,  for  it  is  something  very 
real  as  anyone  whose  knees  have  smote  beneath 
him  will  testify.  Indeed,  however  simple  the  oc- 
casion or  small  the  audience,  it  is  undoubtedly  a 
test  for  the  beginner  to  stand  before  the  focused 
eyes  and  attentive  ears  of  people  who  are  checking 
up  the  words  and  thoughts  as  they  fall  from  his 
lips.  Even  if  the  speech  be  only  a  toast  at  a  con- 
vivial dinner,  the  position  carries  a  measure  of 
responsibility.  The  audience  is  silent;  the  speaker 
has  the  floor;  he  is  expected  to  say  something 
which  has  information  or  wit  or,  at  least,  good 
sense  in  it.  And  for  the  unpracticed  person  to 
satisfy  that  expectation  is  confessedly  no  trivial 
matter. 

However,  the  difficulty  is  greatly  exaggerated 
by  the  speaker's  imagination.     He  assumes  that 


The  Dread  of  Speaking  in  Public         3 

he  is  going  to  be  scared,  and  almost  broods  over 
the  supposed  terror  of  facing  an  audience.  There- 
fore, when  the  occasion  arrives  he  is  in  a  state 
of  nervous  tension  which  invites  panic.  The 
remedy  for  this  weakness  is  to  prepare  for  an  ad- 
dress and  then  throw  it  off  the  mind  until  the  final 
review  of  the  outline  just  before  speaking. 

Another  producer  of  "stage-fright"  is  a  common 
misconception  regarding  the  attitude  of  the  au- 
dience toward  the  speaker.  The  latter  is  apt  to 
imagine  his  listeners  as  looking  for  an  opportunity 
to  ridicule  him  or  to  rejoice  in  his  failure.  Under 
ordinary  circumstances,  where  no  unfriendliness 
toward  the  speaker  exists,  this  is  most  certainly 
not  the  case.  As  a  matter  of  fact  a  speaker  in 
difficulty  is  rather  less  distressed  than  is  his  au- 
dience. Almost  every  individual  in  an  average 
assembly  feels  that  his  own  enjoyment  depends 
largely  upon  the  speaker's  ease  and  felicity,  and 
appreciates  the  effort  that  the  speaker  is  making 
in  behalf  of  the  audience.  The  result  is  a  com- 
posite spirit  of  co-operation  and  good  wishes.  A 
realization  of  this  fact  should  further  reduce  the 
preliminary  fear  of  embarrassment  which  in  many 
cases  haunts  the  speaker  from  the  moment  he 
has  agreed  to  make  an  address. 

The  residue  of  apprehension  should  be  met  with 
a  summoning  of  courage,  of  determination  to  go 
through   the   first  half  dozen   appearances,   after 


4    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

which  a  speaker  will,  ordinarily,  experience  a  fair 
and  increasing  degree  of  comfort  before  his  au- 
dience, 

II.  Misconception  of  the  Speaker^s  Task 

A  second  cause  for  dread  is  a  misconception  of 
what  is  usually  expected  of  a  speaker.  The  source 
of  this  faulty  idea  lies  chiefly  in  the  character  of 
the  speeches  published  in  the  average  "collec- 
tion," and  the  teaching  of  speaking  which  has  ob- 
tained in  the  past  and  is  still  in  vogue  In  many 
schools  and  colleges.  The  pieces  which  comprise 
the  bulk  of  the  collections  mentioned  are  master- 
pieces of  oratory,  delivered  on  great  occasions  by 
the  giants  of  the  rostrum.  Demosthenes,  Cicero, 
Robespierre,  Hugo,  Patrick  Henry,  Wendell  Phil- 
lips, Gladstone,  Henry  W.  Grady,  W.  J.  Bryan — 
such  are  the  men  whose  most  striking  efforts  are 
read  by  young  men  and  women  as  models  of  the 
speaker's  art.  The  lights  and  shades  of  Phillips' 
chiselled  diction,  the  passion  of  Patrick  Henry's 
burning  periods,  the  lofty  imagery  of  Webster's 
surging  oratory,  the  telling  pathos  of  Grady's 
vivid  word-pictures — such  are  the  features  which 
are  studied  and  rehearsed  under  the  tutelage  of 
instructors  who  frequently  possess  an  unfortunate 
excellence  in  dramatic  interpretation,  serving  to 
obscure  rather  than  to  advance  the  real  aim  of 
studying  public  speaking. 


The  Dread  of  Speaking  in  Public         5 

And  what  is  the  relationship  between  this  kind 
of  reading  and  study  and  the  dread  which  the 
average  man  feels  when  asked  to  address  an  au- 
dience? Simply  that  he  has  more  or  less  uncon- 
sciously acquired  from  it  a  false  notion  of  what  is 
expected  of  a  speaker.  If  the  things  which  he  has 
read  or  studied  are  models,  then  he  must  attempt 
to  deliver  himself  in  a  profound,  dramatic,  or 
elegant  manner.  Is  it  any  wonder  that  he  quakes 
inwardly  when  called  upon  to  speak.'' 

In  pointing  out  the  misconception  derived  from 
the  study  and  practice  of  masterpieces,  it  is  only 
fair  to  draw  a  clear  distinction  between  the  re- 
sults as  applied  to  dramatic  interpretation  and 
to  practical  public  speaking.  The  practices  which 
have  just  been  mentioned  are  very  likely  valuable 
for  the  former,  but  of  comparatively  little  worth 
for  the  latter,  because  the  student  is  working  with 
types  of  matter  and  style  which  he  will  probably 
never  use.  Thundering  orations  against  Catiline, 
soul-stirring  appeals  to  arms,  and  "key-note" 
speeches  are  rarities.  What  everyday  students  of 
public  speaking  may  more  profitably  take  as 
models  for  study  and  practice  are  the  best  ad- 
dresses delivered  from  day  to  day  by  doctors, 
lawyers,  engineers,  business  men  and  others  who 
are  speaking  in  clinics,  courts  and  lecture-halls; 
at  clubs,  conferences  and  committee  meetings. 
A  current  newspaper  file  contains  better  material 


6    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

for  study  than  does  a  set  of  "Masterpieces  of 
Oratory."  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  great  ora- 
tions are  not  worthy  of  careful  consideration,  but 
that  they  are  clearly  out  of  place  as  models  for 
the  man  who  wishes  to  explain  the  workings  of 
a  piece  of  mechanical  apparatus,  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  the  proceedings  of  a  convention,  to  de- 
liver an  address  on  the  drama,  or  to  discuss  the 
merits  of  a  product  which  he  wishes  to  market. 
What  any  speaker  should  first  strive  for  is  sub- 
stantial material  not  brilliant  imagery,  clearness 
not  profundity,  common  enthusiasm  not  glowing 
passion.  As  long  ago  as  1886,  Thomas  Went- 
worth  Higginson  wrote  in  his  "Hints  on  Speech- 
Making,"  "Always  speak  in  a  natural  key,  and 
in  a  conversational  manner.  The  days  of  pom- 
pous and  stilted  eloquence  are  gone  by."  So  one 
may  dismiss  the  dread  which  arises  from  the  mis- 
taken idea  that  a  speaker  is  expected  to  orate 
after  the  manner  of  past-masters  of  the  art. 

III.  Poor  Preparation 

The  third  cause  for  dread  of  speaking,  poor  prep- 
aration, is  the  most  important  and  at  the  same 
time  the  most  surely  avoidable.  It  is  of  greatest 
importance  because  the  hardfst  task  for  a  public 
speaker  is  to  face  an  audience  without  material 
or  plan.  Such  a  situation  is  strikingly  suggestive 
of    the    time-honored    "bricks    without    straw" 


The  Dread  of  Speaking  in  Public         7 

proposition.  Moreover,  in  this  connection  it  is 
well  to  point  out  that  a  speaker  should  always 
have  a  definite  topic  for  consideration.  Nothing 
is  more  apt  to  result  in  ineffective  preparation 
than  a  vague  idea  as  to  what  one  is  going  to  talk 
about.  A  person  who  proposes  to  discuss  "some- 
thing touching  upon  labor  unions,  international 
arbitration  and  the  minimum  wage  law"  faces 
an  enormous  task  of  investigation — a  task  which 
he  will  probably  leave  undone.  Even  any  one 
part  of  the  above  subject  would  be  rather  broad 
and  indefinite  for  the  unpracticed  speaker.  Much 
more  adaptable  to  satisfactory  preparation  are 
such  clearly  defined  topics  as,  "The  Aims  of  Labor 
Unions,"  "The  Shortcomings  of  Labor  Unions," 
"The  Difficulties  of  International  Arbitration," 
"What  International  Arbitration  Has  Accom- 
plished," "Why  We  Need  a  Federal  Minimum 
Wage  Law,"  etc. 

But  let  us  suppose  that  a  person  has  chosen  a 
definite  topic  and  that  he  knows  the  great  danger 
of  lack  of  preparation.  Here  is  a  critical  juncture 
at  which  speakers  sometimes  weaken,  thereby 
nurturing  the  feeling  of  dread.  The  weakness  lies 
chiefly  in  one  or  more  of  the  following  attitudes: 
laziness,  a  forlorn  hope  of  sudden  inspiration  or 
of  picking  up  material  from  other  speakers,  and 
ignorance  of  how  to  prepare.  The  first  two  of 
these  may  be  dismissed   with  a   brief  comment. 


8     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

Laziness  is  absolutely  inadmissible  in  the  lexicon 
of  the  public  speaker.  If  he  knows  his  subject- 
matter,  well  and  good;  if  not,  he  must  get  it.  As 
for  borrowing,  or,  better,  stealing  from  fellow- 
speakers  on  a  program,  the  result  can  hardly  be 
expected  to  be  other  than  a  thing  of  shreds  and 
patches.  Ignorance  of  how  to  prepare  properly 
is  a  really  excusable  cause  for  dread  of  speaking 
in  public  and  will  require  careful  consideration  in 
a  later  chapter. 

C.  Summary 

In  the  foregoing  pages  we  have  noted  that  the 
majority  of  people  dread  to  speak  in  public.  This 
feeling  is  partly  due  to  an  expectation  of  "stage- 
fright,"  which  can  be  largely  overcome  by  not 
brooding  over  the  supposedly  terrifying  occasion; 
by  realizing  that  an  audience  is  ordinarily  com- 
posed of  sympathetic  and  well-disposed  persons; 
and  by  a  summoning  of  courage  for  the  first  few 
attempts,  which  serve  to  accustom  a  speaker  to 
the  situation.  Another  cause  of  dread,  a  faulty 
idea  of  the  speaker's  task,  is  removed  when  the 
speaker  realizes  that  he  is  not  expected,  nor  de- 
sired, to  follow  the  style  of  the  masters  of  oratory, 
but  merely  to  talk  in  a  straightforward  and  in- 
teresting conversational  manner.  The  last  and 
most  important  source  of  dread  is  obviated  by 
avoiding  poor  preparation,  which  is  usually  due 


The  Dread  of  Speaking  in  Public        9 

to  laziness,  dependence  upon  inspiration  or  bor- 
rowing, or  ignorance  of  how  to  prepare.  Before 
considering  the  specific  steps  which  are  to  be 
taken  in  preparing  for  an  address  it  is  desirable  to 
get  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  purposes 
and  methods  which  constitute  the  foundation  of 
speech  making. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  A  SPEECH 

A.  The  Divisions  of  a  Speech 

The  person  who  wishes  to  acquit  himself  credit- 
ably and  to  influence  his  hearers  In  modern  speak- 
ing, whether  for  social,  professional  or  business 
reasons,  may  not  be  particularly  interested  in 
the  names  which  the  Greeks  and  Romans  gave 
to  their  divisions  of  an  oration.  And  it  does  seem 
rather  immaterial  except  for  historical  purposes. 
It  is,  however,  desirable  to  know  what  successful 
speakers  of  to-day  aim  to  do  in  beginning  an  ad- 
dress, In  developing  It,  and  closing  it.  Further- 
more, it  will  be  helpful  to  determine,  as  far  as 
possible,  what  means  they  use  to  realize  their 
aims.  With  these  ends  in  view  we  shall,  for  con- 
venience in  discussion,  divide  the  speech  into  the 
well-known  introduction,  development  or  body 
and  conclusion. 

B.  The  Functions  of  the  Introduction 
I.  Gaining  the  Attention 

The  average  audience  to  which  a  speaker  ad- 
dresses   himself   has    many   and   varied    interests 

lO 


The  Functions  of  the  Parts  of  a  Speech     ii 

as  It  awaits  the  opening  words.  A  sick  child,  a 
falHng  stock-market,  an  impending  lawsuit,  an 
acrobatic  fly  on  a  bald  head  in  the  next  row — any 
number  of  things  have  already  set  up  counter- 
attractions  before  the  speaker  begins.  With  his 
opening  words  the  speaker  interrupts  the  progress 
of  these  various  contemplations,  and  in  the  usual 
settling  that  heralds  the  salutation  he  has  the 
momentary  attention  of  the  audience  by  virtue 
of  the  situation  itself.  The  dullest  speaker  im- 
aginable will  get  the  advantage  of  this  sudden  in- 
terruption of  the  various  trains  of  thought.  A 
preoccupied  pedestrian  is  likely  to  glance  upward 
when  a  shadow  crosses  his  path.  Seeing  only  a 
crow  he  will  instantly  revert  to  his  interrupted 
thoughts,  but  if  he  sees  an  aeroplane  his  attention 
is  arrested.  Similarly,  the  critical  moment  in  the 
opening  of  a  speech  is  not  at  the  outset,  but  im- 
mediately afterward.  It  is  even  possible  that  the 
first  three  or  four  sentences  may  not  be  distinctly 
heard  amid  the  rustle  of  the  settling  process. 
But  these  opening  sentences  should,  of  course, 
be  in  preparation  for  that  critical  moment  at 
which  the  attention  must  be  arrested. 

II.  J  rousing  the  Interest 

Having  caught  the  attention,  the  speaker  next 
aims  to  arouse  the  interest  of  the  audience  before 
attention    lapses.      When    the    above-mentioned 


12     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

pedestrian  looks  up  to  see  what  caused  the  shadow 
on  the  path,  his  train  of  thought  is  not  dismissed; 
it  is  only  interrupted.  If  the  object  does  not 
interest  him,  his  mind  will  revert  to  its  former 
occupation  or  will  be  attracted  by  some  new  sug- 
gestion. So,  when  the  speaker  has  gained  the 
attention  he  must  not  allow  it  to  relax,  but  must 
proceed  at  once  to  arouse  an  interest  which  dis- 
places all  other  claims. 

III.  Presenting  the  Main  Theme 

With  attention  gained  and  interest  aroused,  the 
speaker's  next  purpose  is  to  present  the  topic  idea 
in  such  a  way  that  the  listeners  will  be  prepared 
to  understand  the  succeeding  discussion  and  be 
favorably  impressed  with  the  speaker  personally, 
his  attitude  toward  his  subject,  and  his  attitude 
toward  his  audience. 

IV.   Transition  to  the  Development 

At  this  point  comes  the  transition  from  the 
introduction  to  the  development  of  the  topic. 
Brevity  is  desirable  here,  and  not  the  circumlocu- 
tion, the  backing  and  filling,  the  apparently  aloof 
manner  with  which  some  speakers  approach  the 
substantial  part  of  their  discourse.  This  shying 
at  the  barrier  is  sometimes  due  to  mere  loquacity 
or  ill-timed  aifection  for  anecdotes;  sometimes 
to  a  lack  of  knowing  what  point  to  begin  with; 


The  Functions  of  the  Parts  of  a  Speech     13 

but  chiefly,  I  beheve,  to  the  fact  that  not  all 
speakers  realize  that  the  audience  is  eager  to  hear 
the  message,  if  there  be  one,  and  is  readily  bored 
by  indirectness  or  suspense  at  the  transitional 
point.  Two  or  three  sentences  which  serve  to 
lead  directly  and  logically  into  the  first  phase  of 
the  discussion  are  generally  adequate  and  most 
desirable. 

C.  The  Functions  of  the  Development 

There  are  some  people  who  can  talk  in  public, 
filling  their  allotted  time  and  more,  beginning 
nowhere  in  particular  and  ending  everywhere  in 
general.  Obviously  that  is  poor  and  inefl^ective 
speaking.  When  a  person  makes  an  address  with 
a  real  purpose  he  should  aim  to  produce  certain 
eflPects  in  each  part,  but  since  the  body  or  develop- 
ment is  the  most  significant  division,  he  should 
give  particular  attention  to  its  functions. 

I.  Emphasizing  the  Main  Theme 

Almost  every  good  speech  will  have  a  central 
idea  which  constitutes  the  speaker's  message — 
his  chief  reason  for  making  the  address.  To  keep 
this  central  idea  in  the  minds  of  the  auditors  is 
the  first  aim  to  be  observed.  Various  factors  tend 
to  induce  the  speaker  to  violate  this  injunction, 
but  if  the  audience  is  permitted  to  become  vague 


14     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

as   to  the  main   theme,   the  effectiveness  of  the 
speech  is  undoubtedly  weakened. 

II.  Producing  Conviction 

A  second  purpose  of  the  development  is  to 
bring  out  a  variety  of  facts,  inferences,  ideas,  ex- 
amples, illustrations,  logical  conclusions — all  the 
material  of  elaboration — in  such  a  way  as  to  im- 
press the  listeners  with  the  soundness  of  the 
central  theme.  In  this  way  is  built  up  the  chief 
aim  in  the  development — conviction. 

III.  Establishing  Distinct  Salient  Points 

Again,  the  speaker  aims  in  the  body  to  develop 
strong  leading  points,  each  one  standing  out  clearly 
in  support  of  the  chief  message.  At  the  same  time 
he  strives  to  unfold  the  subject  in  such  a  way 
that  the  audience  cannot  fail  to  understand  not 
only  the  bearing  of  each  part  upon  the  whole  but 
also  the  relationship  of  part  to  part. 

IV.  Holding  the  Listeners^  Interest  and  Sympathy 

Finally,  in  developing  his  topic  the  speaker 
seeks  to  sustain  and  increase  the  interest  of  his 
listeners  as  he  proceeds.  Moreover,  at  all  times 
he  aims  to  hold  their  sympathy  and  to  keep  their 
emotions  sufficiently  active  to  secure  the  proper 
mingling  of  persuasion  and  conviction. 


The  Functions  of  the  Parts  of  a  Speech     15 

D.  The  Functions  of  the  Conclusion 

Though  the  conclusion  of  an  address  might  seem 
to  present  a  minimum  of  difficulty,  one  often 
hears  a  speaker  who  is  either  unwilling  or  unable 
to  finish  properly.  It  is  the  section  which  appears 
to  offer  the  greatest  temptation  to  more  or  less 
aimless  loquacity.  This  is  not  altogether  inex- 
plicable. When  a  person  has  delivered  the  burden 
of  his  address  and  triumphed  over  his  initial  ner- 
vousness, or  has  interested  and  pleased  his  au- 
dience, he  is  likely  to  experience  a  very  noticeable 
feeHng  of  elation.  With  increased  confidence  and 
a  corresponding  fluency  of  brain  and  tongue,  an 
Inclination  sometimes  manifests  itself  to  repeat, 
to  elaborate  still  further,  to  add  details  previously 
omitted,  or  even  to  launch  upon  a  new  topic.  Such 
a  prolongation  is  not  in  keeping  with  the  true 
function  of  the  conclusion.  Nor  is  It  desirable, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  close  abruptly,  to  take  the 
audience  by  surprise.  A  speaker  who  finishes  his 
address  with  the  development  of  the  final  phase 
of  the  discussion  is  apt  to  leave  a  confused  or  un- 
favorable impression.  He  certainly  does  not  take 
advantage  of  the  excellent  opportunity  which  a 
real  conclusion  afi"ords,  due  to  its  position  at  the 
end  of  the  speech.  The  concluding  part  generally 
remains  most  vividly  in  the  listeners'  minds.  It  is, 
therefore,  desirable  that  the  speaker  should  av^oid 


l6     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

wearying  the  audience  with  unwarranted  prolon- 
gation, or  leaving  it  confused  or  dissatisfied  by  an 
abrupt  termination.  With  this  caution  against 
two  common  shortcomings,  we  may  turn  to  the 
proper  functions  of  the  conclusion. 

I.  Rounding  out  the  Speech 

The  speaker  should  aim  in  the  conclusion  to 
convey  the  impression  of  completeness,  of  having 
rounded  out  the  address  in  a  finished  and  satisfying 
manner. 

II.  Clinching  the  Central  Idea 

The  conclusion  also  aff"ords  an  opportunity  for 
a  final  embodiment  of  the  speaker's  message  in 
such  concise  and  untrammeled  form  that  his  listen- 
ers will  carry  the  essentials  away  with  them. 

III.  Arousing  Enthusiasm  and  Exhorting  to  Action 

Finally,  the  speaker  should  try,  whenever  the 
nature  of  the  subject  warrants  it,  to  arouse  en- 
thusiasm for  the  views  set  forth.  Although  ever 
mindful  of  the  emotions  of  the  audience,  the 
speaker  has  aimed  chiefly  in  the  development  to 
appeal  to  the  mind,  to  convince.  Now,  having 
established  a  foundation  of  conviction,  he  is  in 
a  position  to  appeal  more  directly  and  intensely 
to  the  emotions.     At  this  point  is  afi^orded,  also, 


The  Functions  of  the  Parts  of  a  Speech     17 

the  best  opportunity  to  appeal  for  action  in  case 
such  a  response  is  desired. 

E.  Summary 

To  sum  up  briefly,  we  have  seen  that  each  of 
the  three  parts  of  a  speech  has  special  functions. 
It  should  not  be  inferred  from  this  that  the  speaker 
is  prohibited  from  striving  in  any  given  part  for 
certain  effects  which  he  seeks  more  especially  in 
another  division.  Indeed,  it  has  been  stated,  for 
example,  that  he  should  try  to  hold  the  interest 
throughout  the  speech,  and  that  he  should  keep 
the  emotions  active  in  the  development  as  well 
as  in  the  conclusion.  But  there  are  certain  pur- 
poses which  are  best  served  in  the  introduction 
because  of  its  position.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
body  and  the  conclusion.  The  introduction  aims 
to  gain  attention,  arouse  interest,  present  the 
theme  in  a  clear  and  appealing  manner,  and  to 
make  a  brief  and  logical  transition  to  the  body. 
The  body  seeks  to  emphasize  the  main  theme,  to 
elaborate  convincingly  the  leading  points  which 
support  it,  and  to  keep  the  sympathies  of  the 
audience  keen  and  its  interest  rising.  The  con- 
clusion gathers  up  the  threads  of  the  discourse 
into  a  satisfying  whole,  gives  a  final,  penetrating 
embodiment  of  the  chief  message,  arouses  en- 
thusiasm for  the  views  advanced,  and,  when  feasi- 
ble, exhorts  to  action. 


CHAPTER  III 

INTRODUCING  A  SPEECH 

There  are  several  ways  in  which  a  speech  may 
be  aptly  and  felicitously  introduced  with  a  view  to 
realizing  the  aims  stated  in  the  preceding  chapter. 
In  choosing  the  type  of  introduction  for  a  given 
address  the  speaker  should,  in  general,  be  gov- 
erned by  one  or  more  of  the  following  factors: 
the  time  at  his  disposal,  his  own  temperament, 
the  kind  of  audience  addressed,  the  topic  of  dis- 
cussion, the  attitude  of  the  audience  toward  the 
speaker  and  subject,  and  the  manner  in  which  he 
intends  to  develop  his  theme.  Some  of  these 
conditions  require  special  consideration,  but  we 
shall  first  discuss  the  methods  which  apply  under 
ordinary  circumstances. 

A.  Collecting  One's  Forces 

After  the  customary  salutation  of  the  presiding 
officer,  the  speaker  will  do  well  to  collect  his  forces 
in  silence  until  the  room  is  quiet  enough  to  permit 
him  to  be  heard  distinctly.  This  will  obviate  two 
faults  of  common  occurrence.  In  the  first  place, 
this  moment  or  two  of  poising  before  the  flight 


Introducing  a  Speech  19 

is  calculated  to  prevent  the  speaker  from  uttering 
hastily  phrased  sentences,  in  a  breathless  manner. 
During  the  first  instant  of  facing  an  audience, 
only  an  experienced  speaker  has  full  command  of 
his  language  and  feels  physically  at  ease.  Most 
persons  are  momentarily  unsteadied  by  the  situa- 
tion; the  breathing  is  not  under  control  and  the 
heart  action  is  irregular.  In  this  condition  one  is 
apt  to  garble  or  express  awkwardly  even  a  care- 
fully planned  opening,  A  brief  pause  will  remedy 
this  fault.  In  the  second  place,  it  will  prevent 
the  speaker  from  wasting  his  introductory  re- 
marks in  the  subsiding  murmur  of  the  audience. 
The  loss  of  the  opening  words  tends  to  create  a 
bad  impression  on  the  audience,  and  is  further 
unfortunate  in  that  these  words  are  usually  essen- 
tial to  the  full  understanding  or  appreciation 
of  that  which  follows.  The  speaker,  then,  derives 
distinct  advantages  by  taking  time  to  look  over 
his  audience  deliberately  while  getting  his  bear- 
ings and  awaiting  silence. 

B.  Avoiding  the  Threadbare  Apology 

With  the  actual  beginning  of  the  address  there 
is  apt  to  come  a  temptation  to  follow  a  wide- 
spread and  hackneyed  convention — to  apologize. 
As  was  suggested  in  the  first  chapter,  some  men 
begin  to  organize  their  apology  as  soon  as  they 
consent  to  appear  in  public.    In  not  a  few  instances, 


20     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

to  be  sure,  it  is  the  most  apt  and  convincing  fea- 
ture of  their  entire  performance;  but  that  is  a 
disgrace  to  the  speaker  rather  than  a  tribute  to 
the  apology.  There  may,  of  course,  be  a  real 
reason  for  asking  the  indulgence  of  the  audience 
on  account  of  hoarseness,  illness,  lateness  or  some 
other  unavoidable  shortcoming.  The  hoary  cus- 
tom of  craving  quarter  on  general  principles,  how- 
ever, is  one  of  the  lamest  means  of  getting  under 
way.  It  does  not  arrest  attention;  it  does  not 
arouse  interest;  it  does  not  tend  to  secure  for  the 
speaker  a  favorable  attitude  on  the  part  of  the 
audience;  and  it  certainly  has  no  bearing  on  his 
subject-matter.  What  may,  then,  be  used  to  best 
advantage  at  the  outset.'* 

C.  Effective  Openings 

I.  Reference  to  Attendant  Circumstances 

If  the  circumstances  attending  the  speaker's 
presence  on  the  platform  are  of  especial  interest 
or  significance,  he  may  fitly  open  with  comments 
on  the  fact.  Suppose,  for  example,  the  invitation 
to  speak  had  reached  him  at  a  distance  and  when 
he  was  occupied  with  thoughts  very  different 
from  those  of  the  present  moment;  this  might 
lead  to  a  very  interesting  contrast.  Or,  if  recently 
he  had  spoken  on  a  similar  subject  to  a  very  dif- 
ferent kind  of  audience,  he  might  use  this  as  the 


Introducing  a  Speech  21 

basis  of  an  interesting  comment  on  the  various 
groups  who  are  working  and  thinking  in  different 
ways  toward  the  same  ends.  Again,  if  the  speaker 
has  previously  addressed  the  same  body,  he  might 
refer  to  his  pleasure  on  that  occasion,  or  comment 
on  the  changes  which  have  since  occurred,  af- 
fecting the  lives  of  those  present.  It  is  to  be  care- 
fully noted  that  in  using  these,  or  any  of  the  fol- 
lowing openings,  it  is  desirable  to  make  the  initial 
remarks  lead  into  the  theme,  just  as  the  introduc- 
tory bars  of  a  good  piece  of  music  merge  into  the 
opening  of  the  melody  proper. 

II.  Complimentary  Opening 

A  second  method  of  opening  is  by  expressing 
pleasure  in  the  present  opportunity,  and  deftly 
complimenting  the  audience  on  the  work  they 
are  doing  for  the  cause  under  consideration,  or 
the  interest  which  they  have  shown  in  the  subject 
of  discussion.  This  complimentary  opening  should 
be  used,  however,  with  discretion.  Too  often  it 
is  employed  without  reasonable  warrant,  and 
even  the  most  unpretentious  audience  has  a  quick 
composite  sense  for  the  detection  of  flattery,  in- 
sincere compliment,  or  anything  whatever  that 
is  bogus.  Probably  many  of  my  readers  have 
heard  of  the  prominent  politician  who  failed 
lamentably  in  an  effort  to  curry  favor  with  an 
uneducated  New  York  audience  by  speaking  in 


22    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

his  shirt-sleeves.  If  a  compliment  is  deserved  by 
the  listeners  and  is  sincerely  intended  by  the 
speaker,  it  constitutes  a  felicitous  beginning. 
Under  such  circumstances  it  helps  to  create  a 
pleasant  relationship  between  speaker  and  au- 
dience. The  bogus  compliment,  on  the  contrary, 
is  apt  to  recoil,  greatly  to  the  speaker's  disad- 
vantage. 

III.  Narrative-Descriptive  Opening 

Another  excellent  means  of  opening  is  a  brief 
narration  or  description.  A  really  good  anecdote 
or  a  striking  description  of  some  significant  object 
or  scene  is  one  of  the  surest  bids  for  attention  and 
interest.  There  is  no  doubt  that  audiences  like 
stories  especially.  They  liked  them  long  before 
that  famous  Speaker  made  such  effective  use  of 
the  parables,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  they  will 
always  respond  to  a  lively  tale. 

In  using  the  descriptive  or  narrative  form  of 
opening,  two  things  are  to  be  observed:  first,  the 
material  should  be  fresh  and  vivid,  in  idea,  word- 
ing, and  manner  of  delivery;  second,  the  main 
point  involved  in  the  narration  or  word-picture 
should  have  an  unmistakable  significance  with 
reference  to  the  topic  of  the  discussion.  The 
speaker  can  readily  construct  his  own  descriptions 
to  fit  his  subject.    For  example,  if  he  were  to  speak 


Introducing  a  Speech  23 

on  the  question  of  child  labor  he  might  open  with 
a  concrete  picture,  not  overdrawn,  of  a  big  Chi- 
cago refrigerating  plant  on  a  broiling  day  in 
summer;  of  massive  doors  which  separate  the 
icy  temperature  within,  from  the  terrific  heat 
without;  of  little  boys  of  ten  or  twelve  years,  who 
in  operating  these  doors  must  undergo  the  enervat- 
ing effects  of  this  alternation  of  heat  and  cold. 
In  an  entirely  different  tone,  the  following  opening 
of  a  recent  biographical  address  suggests  how 
stimulating  a  simple  description  can  be. 

"One  hot  August  day  in  183 1,  a  gawky  youth 
of  twenty-three  could  have  been  seen  walking 
along  the  streets  of  New  York  for  the  first  time. 
His  clothes  were  patched  and  soiled,  his  coat 
cuffs  were  far  above  his  wrists  and  his  pants 
scarcely  reached  his  ankles.  A  much  worn  hat 
covered  his  head  and  all  the  worldly  possessions 
he  was  not  at  that  moment  wearing  were  tied  in 
a  handkerchief  and  carried  on  a  stick  across  his 
shoulder.  There  was  nothing  about  this  youngster 
to  suggest  that  he  would  soon  become  one  of  the 
greatest  moral,  intellectual  and  political  forces  of 
his  times.  Yet  this  was  Horace  Greeley's  arrival 
in  New  York." 

There  is  little  difficulty  in  selecting  a  fit  subject 
for  portrayal  when  the  descriptive  opening  seems 
advantageous.  Care  should  be  taken,  however, 
to  choose  the  most  significant  features  In  ordef 


24     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

that  the  picture  may  be  vivid,  and  unobscured  by 
minor  details. 

In  case  the  narrative  is  used,  the  speaker  must, 
as  a  rule,  depend  upon  tales  that  he  hears  or  reads. 
But  inasmuch  as  the  humorous  anecdote  is  most 
favored  for  getting  the  audience  in  a  proper  frame 
of  mind  toward  speaker  and  subject,  the  problem 
of  finding  effective  narratives  is  comparatively 
simple.  The  newspapers  and  periodicals  are 
sprinkled  with  humorous  bits,  many  of  them 
bright,  snappy  and  easily  adaptable  to  a  great 
variety  of  subjects.  While  writing  this  para- 
graph I  glanced  at  the  daily  paper  on  my  desk  and 
took  at  random  the  first  anecdote  that  appeared, 
running  as  follows. 

"The  late  John  Philip  Quinn,  who  for  twenty 
years  traveled  all  over  America  exposing  the  elec- 
tric roulette  wheel  and  other  cheating  devices 
used  in  gambling,  had  a  reform  story  that  he 
would  tell  while  exhibiting  his  queer  paraphernalia 
in  his  private  car.  'Don't  be  afraid  of  reform,' 
he  said;  'help  every  poor  fellow  who  wants  to 
reform.  The  way  most  people  act  you'd  think 
they  all  believed  religiously  in  the  following  re- 
form story.'  'You  stopped  smoking  because  she 
asked  you  to.'*'  was  the  question  put  to  a  solemn 
looking  chap.  'Yep.'  'And  you  stopped  swear- 
ing because  she  asked  you  to.*"  'Yep.'  'And 
you  gave  up  your  poker  parties  and  went  into 


Introducing  a  Speech  25 

refined,  serious  society  for  the  same  reason?' 
'Yep,  yep.'  'And  yet  you  never  married  her!' 
'Well,  you  see,  after  I'd  reformed  like  that  I 
found  I  could  do  better.'" 

To  link  the  point  of  this  story  to  the  theme  of 
any  reform  discussion  the  speaker  would  need 
only  to  say  something  to  the  effect  that  the  X 
association  or  the  Y  party  has  reformed,  or  Is  re- 
forming, and  Is  already  aiming  to  do  better.  This 
random  anecdote  merely  serves  to  Indicate  a  type 
of  narrative  opening  which  puts  an  audience  In 
good  humor,  and  foreshadows  the  point  of  the 
address.  In  the  papers  and  magazines  are  to  be 
found  scores  of  such  Items,  and  It  Is  a  good  Idea  to 
clip  the  best  of  them  and  file  them  for  use  when 
occasion  arises. 

IV.   The  Literary  Rejerence 

Another  way  of  opening,  akin  to  the  narrative- 
descriptive  method  and  highly  favored  by  good 
speakers,  Is  the  literary  reference.  It  may  be  an 
allusion  to  a  character,  a  scene,  an  Incident,  a 
theory  or  a  bit  of  philosophy  In  some  poem,  play, 
novel  or  other  literary  work.  The  eff^ectlveness 
of  this  kind  of  opening  Is  Increased  If  the  allusion 
be  to  some  well-known  work,  or  writer  at  least, 
for  the  average  audience  Is  pleased  to  recognize  a 
literary  acquaintanceship.  And  such  self-satisfac- 
tion subtly  reacts  to  the  speaker's  legitimate  ad- 


26     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

vantage.  The  essential  thing  to  be  observed  in 
making  a  literary  allusion,  as  in  the  use  of  all 
illustrative  matter,  is  that  the  point  of  reference 
should  be  perfectly  clear  in  its  bearing  on  the  topic 
idea.  The  following  introduction  from  President 
Wilson's  discussion  of  "Progress"  illustrates  the 
manner  in  which  a  literary  reference  may  fitly 
open  an  address. 

"In  that  sage  and  veracious  chronicle,  'Alice 
Through  the  Looking-Glass,'  it  is  recounted  how, 
on  a  noteworthy  occasion,  the  little  heroine  is 
seized  by  the  Red  Chess  Queen,  who  races  her  off 
at  a  terrific  pace.  They  run  until  both  of  them 
are  out  of  breath;  then  they  stop,  and  Alice  looks 
around  her  and  says,  'Why,  we  are  just  where  we 
were  when  we  started!'  'Oh,  yes,'  says  the  Red 
Queen;  'you  have  to  run  twice  as  fast  as  that  to 
get  anywhere  else.' 

"That  is  a  parable  of  progress.  The  laws  of 
this  country  have  not  kept  up  with  the  change  of 
economic  circumstances  in  this  country;  they 
have  not  kept  up  with  the  change  of  political  cir- 
cumstances; and  therefore  we  are  not  even  where 
we  were  when  we  started.  We  shall  have  to  run, 
not  until  we  are  out  of  breath,  but  until  we  have 
caught  up  with  our  own  conditions,  before  we 
shall  be  where  we  were  when  we  started;  when 
we  started  this  great  experiment  which  has  been 
the  hope  and  the  beacon  of  the  world.     And  wc 


Introducing  a  Speech  27 

should  have  to  run  twice  as  fast  as  any  rational 
program  I  have  seen  in  order  to  get  anywhere 
else." 

V.  Allusion  to   Timely  Remark  or  hicident 

Sometimes  a  timely  remark,  bit  of  conversation 
or  incident  which  involves  one  or  more  of  the 
factors  of  the  subject  under  discussion  affords  a 
very  apt  opening.  A  reference  to  something 
which  has  been  said  by  a  previous  speaker,  or 
in  a  recent  conversation,  puts  the  speaker  at 
once  upon  an  easy  and  intimate  footing  with 
his  audience.  Again,  in  these  days  of  such  a 
multiplicity  of  news  items,  one  can  almost  always 
find  an  account  of  an  interesting  happening  which 
pertains  to  one's  topic,  whatever  that  may  be. 

D.  Presenting  the  Subject 

From  any  one,  or  combination,  of  the  above 
means  of  getting  attention  and  arousing  Interest 
the  speaker  may  proceed  to  the  presentation  of 
the  topic  idea.  If  the  subject  is  complex,  or  un- 
familiar to  the  audience,  he  may  use  any  or  all 
of  the  following  factors  as  a  foundation  for  the 
discussion  proper:  (i)  an  account  of  the  significant 
steps  in  the  history  of  the  subject  leading  up  to 
the  present;  (2)  an  analysis  of  the  existing  state 
of  affairs;  (3)  a  careful  explanation  of  the  terms 


28     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

of  the  subject;  (4)  a  summing  up  of  the  exposi- 
tory matter  by  a  specific  statement  of  the  essen- 
tial phases  which  must  be  discussed  in  order  to 
arrive  at  a  satisfactory  conclusion.  How  much, 
if  any  of  this  exposition,  need  be  used  depends 
upon  the  nature  of  the  subject,  the  nature  of  the 
audience,  or  both. 


E.  Introduction  under  Special  Circumstances 

I.  Determined  by  the  Subject 

In  some  cases  the  essence  of  the  whole  speech 
is  historical  or  expository.  Such,  for  example, 
would  be  an  account  of  a  convention,  a  biograph- 
ical address,  or  the  explanation  of  a  machine  or  a 
manufacturing  process.  Obviously,  little  or  no 
introductory  exposition  would  be  required  in 
such  a  case  to  prepare  the  audience  to  understand 
the  subject.  On  the  other  hand,  for  certain  com- 
plex topics,  particularly  those  which  are  argu- 
mentative, the  audience  needs  an  explanatory 
introduction  in  order  to  be  able  to  judge  with 
understanding  the  merits  of  the  ideas  advanced 
in  the  development  of  the  address.  A  talk  on 
"The  New  York  City  School  System,"  let  us  say, 
might  need  for  introduction  only  the  appeal  for 
attention  and  interest.  But  the  subject,  "Should 
New  York  City  Adopt  the  Gary  System.^"  would 


Introducing  a  Speech  29 

require  a  careful  elucidation  of  terms  and  condi- 
tions. 

II.  Determined  by  the  Audience 

The  nature  of  the  introduction  is  further  de- 
termined hy  the  audience  addressed;  first,  in  re- 
spect to  its  understanding;  second,  with  reference 
to  its  attitude  toward  the  subject.  Naturally, 
if  a  particular  body  of  listeners  is  conversant  with 
the  terms,  general  history  and  bearings  of  a  sub- 
ject, the  speaker  will  be  freed  in  great  measure 
from  preliminary  explanation.  Indeed,  any  super- 
fluous exposition  would  tend  to  weary,  or  perhaps 
antagonize,  the  audience.  On  the  contrary,  if  a 
given  audience  is  unacquainted  with  the  general 
subject  for  consideration,  however  simple  it  may 
be,  care  must  be  taken  to  provide  adequate 
initiation. 

Then  as  to  the  attitude  of  those  addressed. 
Sometimes  an  audience  is  so  keenly  interested  in 
a  subject  that  any  of  the  customary  bids  for  at- 
tention or  interest  are  a  waste  of  time,  or  even 
out  of  place.  In  other  cases  there  may  be  hostility 
toward  the  speaker  personally,  or  toward  the  views 
which  he  is  known  to  hold.  The  speaker  must, 
in  that  event,  make  an  attempt  at  the  very  outset 
to  placate  his  hearers.  To  start  out  directly  to 
force  his  ideas  down  the  very  throats  of  an  un- 
sympathetic   audience    is    likely    to    result    disas- 


30    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

trously.  Brutus  could  tell  the  cobblers  and  car- 
penters of  Rome  to  keep  still  and  hear  what  he 
had  to  say,  but  Antony  with  his  courteous  ex- 
planation of  his  presence  got  much  the  better  of 
the  bargain.  And  what  is  of  even  greater  sig- 
nificance, the  average  modern  audience,  in  spite 
of  points  of  similarity,  is  not  to  be  mistaken  for  a 
Roman  mob.  But  while  it  cannot  be  bullied,  it 
is  almost  always  favorably  responsive  to  an  ap- 
peal for  a  fair  hearing;  or  to  a  statement  of  earnest 
desire  to  get  at  the  truth  of  a  vexed  problem;  or 
to  a  modest  plea  setting  forth  the  speaker's  quali- 
fication for  venturing  to  discuss  the  topic;  or  to 
an  expression  of  sympathetic  understanding  of 
the  listeners'  attitude  toward  the  matter  under 
consideration.  Probably  some  of  my  readers  are 
familiar  with  Henry  Ward  Beecher's  successful 
opening  appeal  for  "fair  play"  in  one  of  his  anti- 
slavery  speeches,  before  an  intensely  hostile  au- 
dience in  Liverpool.  After  speaking  briefly  of 
his  opposition  to  slavery,  and  of  the  Southern 
leanings  he  had  encountered  in  England,  he  said: 
"If  I  do  not  mistake  the  tone  and  temper  of 
Englishmen,  they  had  rather  have  a  man  who 
opposes  them  in  a  manly  way  than  a  sneak  who 
agrees  with  them  in  an  unmanly  way.  If  I  can 
carry  you  with  me  by  sound  convictions,  I  shall 
be  immensely  glad;  but  if  I  cannot  carry  you  with 
me  by  sound  arguments,  I  do  not  wish  you  to  go 


Introducing  a  Speech  31 

with  me  at  all;  and  all  that  I  ask  is  simply  fair 

A  similarly  successful  opening,  which  I  recently 
heard,  was  at  the  occasion  of  a  "preparedness" 
address  by  Major  General  Leonard  Wood,  U.  S.  A. 
His  introductory  statements  were  to  the  effect 
that  no  one  was  more  earnestly  desirous  of  peace 
than  military  men — men  who  had  taken  part  in 
the  making  of  war  and  were  therefore  most  keenly 
appreciative  of  the  horrors  of  war.  From  this  he 
led  into  his  central  theme,  a  plea  for  preparedness 
in  order  to  prevent  war.  Although  the  audience 
was  largely  composed  of  militant  young  pacifists, 
General  Wood  was  able  by  beginning  with  ex- 
pressions  of  sympathetic  understanding  of  his 
listeners'  attitude  to  gain  a  very  favorable  hearing. 

When  a  speaker  approaches  a  hostile  audience 
in  one  of  the  ways  indicated  above,  he  is  usually 
able  to  gain  for  himself  and  his  views  at  least  an 
attitude  of  tolerance,  without  which  he  could  not 
continue  with  any  hope  of  success. 

F.  Summary 

This  chapter  has  attempted  to  point  out  various 
specific  ways  of  introducing  a  speech  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  ordinary  and  special  circumstances. 
It  was  first  noted  that  a  deliberate  pause  before 
opening  gives  the  speaker  a  distinct  advantage. 


32     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

It  was  then  urged  that  he  avoid  the  conventional 
apology,  which  fails  to  realize  the  aims  of  a  good 
opening.  These  aims  were  shown  to  be  best  served 
by  beginning  with  one  or  more  of  the  following:  a 
reference  to  attendant  circumstances,  a  sincere 
compliment  to  the  audience,  a  significant  narra- 
tion or  description,  a  pertinent  literary  allusion, 
a  reference  to  a  timely  remark  or  incident. 

After  the  opening,  which  is  designed  to  Interest 
the  audience  and  foreshadow  the  central  idea  of 
the  address,  comes  the  presentation  of  the  topic. 
It  was  suggested  that  such  exposition  be  used  at 
this  point  as  the  complexity  of  the  subject  or  the 
nature  of  the  audience  requires.  The  specific 
means  of  exposition  advocated,  any  or  all  of  which 
may  be  used,  were:  a  historical  review,  a  presenta- 
tion of  the  general  situation  existing,  a  careful 
definition  of  the  terms  constituting  the  topic,  a 
succinct  statement  of  the  salient  phases  to  be 
considered  in  the  body. 

The  speaker  was  advised  not  to  weary  his  au- 
dience with  superfluous  exposition,  nor  to  dwell 
on  pleasantries  when  the  audience  Is  Intense  about 
the  subject  of  discussion.  For  placating  a  hostile 
assemblage,  an  appeal  for  a  fair  hearing,  a  state- 
ment of  earnest  desire  for  truth,  a  modest  claim 
of  adequate  qualification  to  speak,  or  an  expres- 
sion of  sympathy  with  the  views  of  the  audience 
were  proposed. 


Introducing  a  Speech  33 

The  directions  set  forth  in  this  chapter  will,  it 
is  hoped,  provide  for  eflfectively  planned  introduc- 
tions. And  ordinarily  the  speaker  will  be  suf- 
ficiently advised  as  to  the  conditions  which  he 
will  meet  to  enable  him  to  proceed  as  he  has 
intended.  But  he  must  always  be  prepared, 
when  he  appears  before  an  audience,  to  alter 
his  method  of  approach  in  case  the  immedi- 
ate circumstances  make  a  part  or  all  of  the 
intended  introduction  seem  inauspicious.  If, 
for  example,  an  audience  shows  unexpected  hos- 
tility, he  must  vary  an  opening  planned  for 
friendly  listeners.  Or,  if  he  perceives,  from 
vacant  faces  throughout  the  crowd,  that  his  lis- 
teners are  not  as  well  informed  as  he  had  sup- 
posed, he  must  simplify  his  language  and  amplify 
his  exposition.  Again,  if  he  has  planned  a  leisurely 
or  humorous  opening  and  is  surprised  by  an  in- 
tense body  of  hearers,  he  should  not  hesitate  to 
cut  down  his  prefatory  remarks  to  the  barest  es- 
sentials. In  short,  the  speaker,  following  the 
suggestions  laid  down  in  this  chapter,  will  plan 
his  introduction  to  meet  conditions  so  far  as  he 
knows  them;  but  he  will  study  his  audience  from 
the  moment  he  faces  it,  and  adapt  his  matter  and 
manner  as  occasion  requires. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  MEANS   OF   SUBSTANTIAL  DEVELOP- 
MENT 

In  considering  the  methods  of  developing  the 
discussion  of  a  subject  one  must  be  guided  by  the 
fact  that  there  are  many  kinds  of  speeches,  aiming 
at  various  ends.  It  is  therefore  obvious  that  no 
one  hard  and  fast  plan  of  procedure  for  all  ad- 
dresses can  be  constructed.  That  would  savor  too 
much  of  the  famous  Procrustean  bed,  to  which  all 
captives  were  fitted  by  either  stretching  or  lopping 
off  their  limbs.  Our  plan  of  procedure  must  be 
more  elastic.  But  at  the  same  time  certain  general 
principles  of  construction  can  be  formulated  which 
will  help  the  speaker  to  realize  the  aims  previously 
stated;  namely:  to  emphasize  the  main  theme, 
to  elaborate  convincingly  and  persuasively  the 
leading  points  which  support  it,  and  to  keep  the 
sympathies  of  the  audience  keen  and  its  interest 
rising. 

In  order  to  eflfect  these  purposes,  the  essential 
thing  which  the  student  of  speaking  should  strive 
for  is  clearly  defined  substance.  How  frequently 
at  dinners,  clubs,  churches,  gatherings  of  all  sorts, 

34 


The  IMeans  of  Substantial  Development    35 

one  hears  speakers  who  are,  perhaps,  humorous, 
witty,  charming,  interesting,  but  who  leave  noth- 
ing ponderable  after  the  echoes  of  their  voices 
have  died  away.  If  an  auditor  of  one  of  these 
speeches  is  later  asked  to  tell  what  the  speaker  said, 
he  can  only  pause  and  with  some  embarrassment 
reply  that  it  was  "something  about  forestry  and 
rainfall  and  that  sort  of  thing.  Oh,  but  it  was 
most  entertaining."  If  only  momentary  enter- 
tainment is  the  aim,  of  course,  all  is  well.  And 
it  is  to  be  emphasized  that  even  in  speeches  with 
more  serious  purpose  charm,  wit  and  the  like  are 
desirable  qualities.  But  they  must  not  be  de- 
pended upon  for  the  bulk  of  such  speeches.  Let 
them  be  called  the  soul  or  spirit  of  a  speech,  if 
one  pleases,  but  let  us  first  provide  for  them  a 
body,  a  place  of  habitation.  It  has  often  been 
remarked  that  "a  speaker  must  have  something 
to  say."  This  very  good  advice  may  well  be 
amended  to  "something  to  say  in  a  clear  and 
definite  form." 

A.  Determining  the  Main  Theme 

In  order  to  give  an  address  this  clearly  defined 
substance,  the  speaker  must  first  determine  what 
the  chief  purpose  of  his  discourse  is  to  be.  In 
other  words,  he  must  establish  his  "text"  or  main 
theme,  and  not  be  satisfied  to  string  together 
random  comments  on  the  general  subject.    If,  for 


36     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

example,  his  topic  is  "Socialism,"  he  should  decide 
what  impression  he  wishes  to  create:  that  socialism 
is  not  a  practicable  scheme;  or  that  socialism  will 
solve  the  chief  problems  of  modern  society;  or 
that  socialism  aims  to  secure  the  greatest  good 
for  the  greatest  number.  I  do  not  mean  that  every 
speech  is  to  be  constructed  along  purely  argumen- 
tative lines.  The  speaker  may  at  times  be  re- 
quired, in  all  fairness,  to  present  material  which 
makes  against  his  main  view;  but  in  any  speech 
the  dominant  trend  should  be  toward  a  definite 
goal.  Let  us  take  as  another  sample  topic  some- 
thing entirely  foreign  to  the  realm  of  argument: 
"The  Poetry  of  Robert  Browning."  Now,  in 
preparation  for  an  address  on  this  topic*  it  would 
be  most  desirable  to  select  what  seems  to  be  the 
most  characteristic  thing  about  Browning's  poetry 
and  make  that  the  backbone  of  the  discussion. 
It  might  be  to  show  the  dramatic  quality  of  the 
work,  or  Browning's  knowledge  of  human  nature. 
Whatever  the  general  subject  of  discussion  may  be, 
a  central  theme  conduces  to  clearly  defined  sub- 
stance. 

B.  Supporting  the  Main  Theme 

Whenever  it  is  possible  to  establish  a  leading 
purpose,  the  development  should  consist  of  def- 
inite points  supporting  that  purpose.  We  may 
illustrate  with  the  theme  idea,  "Browning's  poetry 


The  Aleans  of  Substantial  Development    37 

shows  a  wide  knowledge  of  human  nature."  Ta 
give  this  leading  proposition  definite  support  we 
should  develop  our  discourse  around  some  such 
distinct  phases  as  follow: 

A.  Browning  knew  the  depths  and  shallows  of 
the  lover. 

B.  Browning  penetrated  the  secret  thoughts  and 
motives  of  the  criminal. 

C.  He  comprehended  the  soul  qualities  of  the 
fanatic. 

D.  He  knew  the  everyday  man  of  affairs. 

E.  He  understood  the  merits  and  the  defects  of 
the  patriot. 

F.  He  had  an  appreciative  sympathy  for  the 
lonely  and  disheartened. 

Similarly,  if  one  were  to  speak  on  a  topic  as 
remote  from  Browning's  poetry  as  street-car 
advertising,  he  should  observe  this  principle  of 
definitely  supporting  the  leading  theme.  Suppose 
the  chief  purpose  of  his  address  was  to  impress 
the  audience  that  street-car  advertising  is  a  very 
advantageous  form  of  general  appeal.  To  this 
end,  his  elaboration  should  develop  along  these 
lines  : 

A.  Street-car  advertising  commands  attention. 

B.  It  arouses  interest. 

C.  It  has  an  enormous  circulation. 

D.  It  appeals  at  advantageous  times. 

E.  It  is  relatively  cheap. 


1  /HU/t€\LJ 


38     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

From  an  address  built  up  in  the  manner  sug- 
gested, the  listener  goes  away  not  only  with  a 
definite  message,  but  also  with  clear  and  definite 
reasons  for  believing  it. 

C.  Means  of  Elaboration 

Of  equal  importance  with  definite  leading  ideas 
is  substantial  material  to  support  those  ideas. 
Any  address  which  consists  of  leading  points  elab- 
orated with  mere  talk,  no  matter  how  brilliant 
the  phrasing  and  diction,  is  open  to  the  charge  of 
being  "thin."  When  we  state  that  Browning 
understood  the  patriot,  it  is  essential  to  bring  to 
the  attention  of  the  audience  his  poems  dealing 
with  patriots;  to  indicate  wherein  and  how  he 
expresses  the  characteristic  thoughts,  moods  and 
acts  of  the  patriot.  If  we  advance  the  idea  that 
street-car  advertising  is  relatively  cheap,  we  must 
substantiate  this  claim  by  submitting  rates,  space, 
term  of  service,  and  numbers  reached,  in  compari- 
son with  similar  data  for  other  forms  of  general 
advertising.  Whatever  point  we  advance  we  must 
*'make  good."  As  will  be  pointed  out,  there  are 
several  ways  of  making  good,  of  substantiating, 
our  points.  Sometimes  one  means  will  suffice; 
again,  a  combination  of  two  or  three  can  be  used 
to  best  advantage. 


The  Means  of  Substantial  Development    39 

I.  Specific  Cases 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  for  convincing  effect 
no  one  method  of  elaboration  equals  the  pres- 
entation of  a  representative  array  of  concrete 
cases  in  point.  If,  for  instance,  in  discussing  the 
topic,  "England's  Violation  of  Neutral  Rights," 
the  speaker  states  that  she  has  interfered  with 
United  States  mails,  his  strongest  support  for 
the  contention  would  be  the  citation  of  specific 
seizures  and  detentions.  The  following  passage 
from  a  contemporary  speech  by  the  Hon.  Clyde  H. 
Tavenner,  of  Illinois,  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives gives  a  typical  example  of  the  telling  use  of 
specific  cases.  Mr.  Tavenner  is  contending  that 
the  men  back  of  the  Navy  League  will  profit  by 
the  League's  propaganda. 

"Now  I  come  down  to  the  officers  of  the  Navy 
League  to-day.  The  president  of  the  league. 
Col.  Robert  M.  Thompson,  the  gentleman  who  was 
unkind  enough  to  threaten  to  sue  me  but  not  kind 
enough  to  do  it  lapplause  on  the  Democratic  sidel, 
is  chairman  of  the  board  of  directors  of  the  Inter- 
national Nickel  Co.,  the  business  of  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  Wall  Street  Journal,  has  been  very  much 
improved  by  the  war. 

"  The  directorate  of  the  International  Nickel  Co. 
interlocks  with  that  of  the  United  States  Steel 
Corporation,   Edmund   C.   Converse  sitting  as  a 


40    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

director  on  both  concerns.  United  States  Steel 
controls  the  bulk  of  the  steel  industry  in  this  coun- 
try, and  is  capitalized  for  ^1,512,000,000,  while 
International  Nickel  controls  the  greater  part  of 
the  nickel  lands  of  the  North  American  Continent, 
and  is  capitalized  at  ^47,000,000. 

"  Col.  Thompson,  as  president  of  the  Navy 
League,  was  a  happy  selection  indeed,  because  the 
steel,  nickel,  and  copper  interests,  all  of  which  will 
profit  handsomely  through  war  and  preparation  for 
war,  interlock  beautifully  through  him  and  his 
International  Nickel  Co.  W.  A.  Clark,  the  Mon- 
tana 'copper  king,'  is  president  of  the  Waclark 
Wire  Co.  and  Col.  Thompson  is  one  of  his  directors 
on  that  corporation.  Then,  too.  Col.  Thompson 
is  president  of  the  New  York  Metal  Exchange. 

"  Col.  Thompson's  International  Nickel  Co.  also 
interlocks  with  the  Midvale  Steel  &  Ordnance  Co., 
W.  E.  Corey  being  a  director  of  International 
Nickel  and  president  and  director  of  the  new  Mid- 
vale  corporation,  which  was  organized  recently 
for  ^100,000,000  especially  to  handle  the  growing 
war-trafficking  trade,  and  is  one  of  the  largest 
war-trading  firms  in  the  United  States.  Mr. 
Corey  only  recently  retired  from  the  presidency 
of  the  Carnegie  Steel  Co.  and  from  the  board  of 
directors  of  United  States  Steel.  One  of  the  under- 
lying concerns  of  the  new  Midvale  company  is  the 
Remington  Arms   Co.,  which  has  a  contract  to 


1  he  Means  of  Substantial  Development    4I 

manufacture  2,000,000  Enfield  rifles  for  the  British 
Government. 

"  The  International  Nickel  Co.  also  interlocks 
with  the  Midvale  concern  through  Ambrose  Monell, 
who  is  president  of  the  International  Nickel  Co.  and 
a  director  of  the  Midvale  Steel  &  Ordnance  Co. 

"  Seward  Prosser,  another  director  of  Interna- 
tional Nickel,  is  one  of  the  contributors  to  the 
funds  of  the  Navy  League  which  have  been  used 
to  banquet  Secretaries  of  the  Navy  and  Members 
of  Congress,  hire  speakers,  and  carry  on  the  elab- 
orate campaign  for  'preparedness'  which  the  Navy 
League  has  been  carrying  on  most  earnestly  for 
the  last  13  years,  and  which  promises  now  to 
bear  fruit  in  the  form  of  staggering  increases  in 
Army  and  Navy  appropriations. 

"  International  Nickel  also  interlocks  directly 
with  the  United  States  Navy  Department,  through 
W.  H.  Brownson,  retired  rear  admiral,  who  is  a 
director  of  the  International  Nickel  Co.  and  on 
the  pay  roll  of  the  Government  at  a  salary  of 
$6,000  a  year,  which  is  three-fourths  full  pay. 
'Who's  Who'  for  1914-15  gives  Admiral  Brown- 
son's  address  as  'Navy  Department,  Washington, 
D.  C  Admiral  Brownson  is,  no  doubt,  of  more 
value  to  the  International  Nickel  Co.  in  Washing- 
ton, where  he  comes  into  intimate  contact  with  fel- 
low naval  officers,  than  he  would  be  any  place  else." 

An  important  point  to  note  in  the  passage  just 


42     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

quoted  is  that  Mr.  Tavenner  uses  what  I  have 
termed  a  "representative  array"  of  examples. 
One  ought  usually  to  cite  at  lease  five  or  six  typical 
cases;  the  number  will  depend,  of  course,  upon 
one's  success  in  a  given  Investigation.  But  the 
speaker  Is  cautioned  against  trying  to  support  an 
important  generalization  with  one  or  two  instances, 
unless  he  can  show  that  these  are  fairly  typical. 

II.  Antecedent  Probability 

Another  method  of  supporting  a  point  Is  by 
elaborating  on  the  basis  of  antecedent  probability. 
If  under  certain  conditions  a  certain  thing  has 
always  happened,  one  may  fairly  prophesy  that 
with  the  same  or  very  similar  conditions  substan- 
tially the  same  thing  will  again  occur.  For  ex- 
ample, If  the  "Solid  South"  has  gone  democratic 
for  many  years  past,  one  may  point  to  a  similar 
outcome  in  the  next  election  providing  no  new 
factor  appears  to  offset  antecedent  probability. 
The  speaker  must  always  be  cognizant  of  the  pos- 
sibility of  this  new  factor. 

III.  Analogy 

It  Is  possible  to  elaborate  a  point  by  showing  an 
essential  similarity  between  two  things  which  are 
unlike  In  some  respects.  On  the  basis  of  this  es- 
sential similarity  we  may  presume  that  both  will 
operate  alike.    For  example.  If  we  wished  to  show 


The  Means  of  Substantial  Development    43 

that  a  censorship  of  moving-pictures  would  be 
futile,  we  might  instance  the  failure  of  stage- 
censorship  as  analogous.  A  classic  and  ver^ 
striking  use  of  analogy  was  Patrick  Henry's  ob- 
servation, "Caesar  had  his  Brutus,  Charles  I  his 
Cromwell,  and  George  III — may  profit  by  their 
example."  In  cases  like  the  examples  cited,  the 
analogy  has  a  considerable  convincing  effect  be- 
cause the  things  compared  resemble  one  another 
so  closely  in  their  essential  nature.  But  as  the 
essential  resemblances  between  the  analogues  de- 
crease, the  convincing  effect  of  the  remaining  simi- 
larity decreases.  An  analogy  between  the  evolu- 
tion of  a  machine  and  the  evolution  of  a  butterfly 
has  only  a  decorative,  or  at  best  illustrative  value. 

IV.  Effect  to  Cause 

A  proposition  may  be  developed  in  demonstrat- 
ing the  truth  of  a  statement  or  the  existence  of  a 
phenomenon  or  state  of  aflPairs  by  arguing  from 
effect  to  cause.  In  using  this  method  of  elabora- 
tion we  prove  the  existence  of  one  thing  by  call- 
ing attention  to  the  indisputable  presence  of  some- 
thing which  is  an  invariable  indication  of  the 
former.  For  example,  a  flock  of  buzzards  hovering 
over  a  southern  swamp  is  a  sign  of  a  carcass  below. 
The  fact  that  people  of  all  classes  throughout  the 
country  purchase  more  Ford  cars  than  any  other 
make  is  a  sign  that  these  cars  represent  an  excep- 


44     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

tional  value  for  the  price  paid.  When  Patrick 
Henry  spoke  the  following  words,  he  was  using  a 
very  potent  argument  from  effect  to  cause: 

"Ask  yourselves  how  this  gracious  reception  of 
our  petition  comports  with  those  warlike  prepara- 
tions which  cover  our  waters  and  darken  our  land. 
Are  fleets  and  armies  necessary  to  a  work  of  love 
and  reconciliation?  Have  we  shown  ourselves  so 
unwilling  to  be  reconciled  that  force  must  be  called 
in  to  win  back  our  love?  Let  us  not  deceive  our- 
selves, sir.  These  are  implements  of  war  and  sub- 
jugation,— the  last  arguments  to  which  kings 
resort.  I  ask,  gentlemen,  what  means  this  mar- 
tial array,  if  its  purpose  be  not  to  force  us  to  sub- 
mission? Can  gentlemen  assign  any  other  pos- 
sible motive  for  it?  Has  Great  Britain  any  enemy 
in  this  quarter  of  the  world  to  call  for  all  this  ac- 
cumulation of  navies  and  armies?  No,  sir,  she 
has  none.  They  are  meant  for  us;  they  can  be 
meant  for  no  other.  They  are  sent  over  to  bind 
and  rivet  upon  us  those  chains  which  the  British 
Ministry  have  been  so  long  forging." 

Attention  is  directed  to  the  way  in  which  Patrick 
Henry  takes  care  to  eliminate  those  factors  which 
might  appear  to  be  causes  for  the  effect  under  con- 
sideration. The  speaker  should,  likewise,  be  sure 
to  satisfy  his  audience  that  the  effect  he  con- 
siders is  produced  by  no  other  cause  than  the  one 
which  he  assigns. 


The  Means  of  Substantial  Development    45 

V,  Cause  to  Effect 

Development  from  cause  to  effect  simply  re- 
verses the  foregoing  method  of  procedure.  If  a 
certain  cause  has  in  the  past  produced  a  given 
effect,  the  speaker  can  from  such  an  admittedly 
existing  cause  predict  its  customary  effect.  Or 
he  may  develop  his  point  by  showing  a  causal 
relationship  between  two  existing  phenomena; 
this  development  may,  of  course,  proceed  from 
cause  to  effect  or  vice  versa.  For  example,  in  an 
address  attacking  modern  prison  reforms,  the 
speaker  might  wish  to  elaborate  the  point,  "Dan- 
ger to  Society."  For  this  purpose  he  could  present 
the  lenient,  trustful  attitude  of  the  reform  officials 
toward  prisoners;  then  point  to  the  increasing 
number  of  escapes  from  prisons  of  the  reformed 
type;  and  finally  link  the  two  phenomena  by  show- 
ing a  cause  to  effect  relationship. 

At  this  point  it  will  not  be  amiss  to  emphasize 
the  danger  of  a  common  fallacy  incident  to  this 
method  of  reasoning.  The  readiness  and  conclu- 
siveness with  which  the  average  person  attributes 
causes  and  effects  is  remarkable.  "The  high  cost 
of  living  is  due  to  the  tariff,"  says  Smith;  "to  the 
railroads,"  says  Brown;  "to  the  middleman," 
says  Jones.  Similarly,  "The  cause  of  the  great 
war  was  England's  envy,"  says  one;  "No,  it  was 
German  militarism,"  says  another;  at  which  the 


46     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

third  and  most  muscular  of  the  trio  settles  the 
matter  by  declaring  the  cause  of  the  war  to  be 
Russian  greed.  Now  the  speaker  must  remember 
that  the  Browns  and  Smiths  and  Joneses  with 
their  own  opinions  are  always  present  in  the  aver- 
age audience.  He  will  do  well,  therefore,  to  demon- 
strate cause  and  effect  with  care,  clearing  away 
fallacious  relationships,  and  sometimes  being  con- 
tent to  establish  a  cause  as  contributory,  or  an 
eifect  as  partial. 

VI.  From  General  to  Specific 

A  useful  method  of  elaboration  is  the  logical 
sequence  known  as  deduction.  "In  deduction  we 
establish  the  status  of  a  specific  case  by  classifying 
it  under  a  general  law  or  principle.  The  reader 
is  probably  familiar  with  the  syllogism,  as  the 
formal  process  of  deductive  reasoning  is  called. 

Major  premise:  All  public  nuisances  should  be 
abolished  by  law. 

Minor  premise:  The  uncovered  ash-cart  is  a 
public  nuisance. 

Conclusion:  Therefore,  the  uncovered  ash-cart 
should  be  abolished  by  law. 

In  writing  or  speaking  we  rarely  express  the 
entire  process;  but  when  we  say,  "The  uncovered 
ash-cart  should  be  abolished  by  law  because  it  is 
a  public  nuisance,"  we  really  use  the  deductive 
process,    omitting    the    obvious    major    premise, 


The  Means  of  Substantial  Development    47 

which  the  listener  instinctively  supplies.  The 
minor  premise  is  also  often  omitted,  as  when  we 
say,  "Fenton  should  have  a  public  park,  for  every 
city  should  have  a  public  park."  Even  the  con- 
clusion is  sometimes  merely  implied;  for  example, 
"Every  criminal  should  be  brought  to  trial,  and 
certainly  X  is  a  criminal." 

Thus,  with  the  omission  of  one  of  the  premises 
or  even  the  conclusion,  we  constantly  use  this 
logical  sequence  in  developing  our  ideas.  The 
chief  reason  for  its  frequent  use  is  the  fact  that 
well-established  generalizations — and  only  such 
should  constitute  the  bases  of  deductions — are 
the  results  of  long  experience,  often  a  part  of  the 
accumulated  wisdom  of  generations  or  ages.  It 
is,  of  course,  absolutely  essential  that  an  audience 
accept  the  general  statement,  the  major  premise. 
With  that  assured,  however,  the  speaker  has  only 
to  show  that  the  specific  phenomenon  falls  under 
the  generalization,  in  order  to  establish  an  inevi- 
table conclusion.  Compared  with  the  difficulty  of 
establishing  the  generalization  itself,  this  task  is 
simple.  A  very  clear  case  in  point  is  found  in  the 
work  of  a  criminal  lawyer,  who,  if  he  can  prove 
his  client  insane,  frees  him  from  responsibility 
for  the  crime  which  he  has  committed.  This  is 
often  a  difficult  proposition,  but  imagine  the  time 
it  must  have  taken  to  establish  the  major  premise, 
"No  insane   person   should   be   held   accountable 


48     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

for  his  crime"!  It  will  be  readily  understood  that 
the  speaker  ought  never  to  ignore  the  advantage 
of  deduction  whenever  it  is  applicable. 

VII.  Narration-Description 

A  considerable  number  of  points  can  be  devel- 
oped wholly  or  in  greater  part  by  the  narrative- 
descriptive  method.  Sometimes  narration  is  used 
exclusively;  sometimes  only  description.  But 
since  the  two  are  so  frequently  combined,  it  is 
better  to  consider  them  together.  Unquestion- 
ably this  method  of  elaborating  a  point  or  an  en- 
tire topic  is  the  easiest  one  because  the  subject- 
matter  is  practically  self-arranged.  Moreover, 
each  successive  advance  suggests  the  following 
step  while  one  is  speaking.  A  schoolboy  can 
describe  or  narrate  before  he  is  able  to  undertake 
with  any  success  the  more  difficult  tasks  of  exposi- 
tion or  argumentation.  Incidentally,  it  is  a  very 
good  idea  for  beginners  to  serve  their  early  speak- 
ing apprenticeship  with  topics  which  permit  of 
the  narrative-descriptive  method  of  development. 
Travel,  biography,  and  the  great  variety  of  sub- 
jects which  lend  themselves  to  historical  treat- 
ment belong  to  this  category. 

VIII.  Definition 

Definition,  understood  in  a  broad  sense,  is  an 
extremely    important    factor    in    elaboration.      It 


The  Means  of  Substantial  Development    49 

ranges  from  a  mere  synonym,  or  dictionary  ex- 
planation, for  a  single  word,  to  a  detailed  and 
varied  exposition  of  a  complex  idea.  It  is  suffi- 
cient to  say  that  "definite"  means  "distinct, 
clear-cut;"  or,  using  the  logical  form,  that  a 
triangle  is  a  plane  figure  (genus)  having  three 
sides  (differentia).  But  whenever  in  his  address 
a  speaker  brings  forward  an  unfamiliar  or  Involved 
concept  or  expression,  he  must  employ  more  elabo- 
rate means  to  make  Its  meaning  perfectly  clear 
to  the  audience.  We  shall  therefore  present  some 
of  the  most  important  methods  of  definition,  con- 
sidered as  means  of  elaborating  the  points  of  a 
discussion. 

a.  By  Repetition 

The  meaning  of  a  statement  which  the  audience 
does  not  seem  to  understand  may  often  be  made 
clear  by  repeating  the  idea  In  a  different  form, 
preferably  in  simpler  terms.  The  repetition  may 
also  be  employed  in  such  a  way  as  to  afford  the 
audience  a  new  viewpoint.  Again,  new  factors 
may  be  added  In  a  series  of  repetitions,  each  suc- 
ceeding repetition  contributing  something  and 
embodying  the  gist  of  the  preceding  cumulation. 
For  example: 

The  government  of  the  City  of  X  Is  feudal  rather 
than  democratic  in  its  structure.  That  is,  It  Is 
dominated  by  an  overlord  and  his  political  bench- 


50     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

men.  These  feudal  rulers  of  the  City  of  X  are 
mulcting  the  people  as  of  old  to  fortify  and  garnish 
their  own  strongholds.  Such  an  antiquated  form 
of  public  robbery  should  long  ago  have  met  with 
determined  suppression  at  the  hands  of  enlightened 
citizenship. 

Of  course  the  ordinary  form  of  repetition  with 
a  change  of  the  wording  or  the  viewpoint  is  usually 
more  applicable,  but  in  case  the  cumulative 
repetition  can  be  used,  it  has  the  additional  value 
of  gathering  force  as  it  moves  forward,  much  as 
the  stream  fed  by  tributaries. 

b.  By  Comparison  or  Contrast 

Comparison  or  contrast  is  another  advantageous 
means  of  defining.  This  method  aims  to  make 
the  subject  clear  by  showing  its  points  of  likeness 
or  dissimilarity  to  something  which  is  already 
familiar  to  the  audience.  Or,  if  the  particular 
thing  under  consideration  is  likely  to  be  confused 
in  the  minds  of  the  listeners  with  some  other 
concept,  a  careful  comparison  of  the  two  is  de- 
sirable, even  though  both  be  unfamiliar.  Each 
will  be  illuminated  by  being  displayed  in  the 
light  of  the  other.  Socialism  and  Anarchism, 
Republicans  and  Progressives,  Syndicalism  and 
Unionism,  Conservatism  and  Radicalism,  Science 
and  Art  are  suggestive  of  the  types  which  invite 


The  Means  of  Substantial  Development    51 

and  reward  comparison  or  contrast.  The  follow- 
ing passage  from  an  address  on  literature  by  Pro- 
fessor Brander  Matthews  illustrates  the  method: 
"Art  and  Science  have  each  of  them  their  own 
field;  they  have  each  of  them  their  own  work  to 
do;  and  they  are  not  competitors  but  colleagues 
in  the  service  of  humanity,  responding  to  differ- 
ent needs.  Man  cannot  live  by  Science  alone, 
since  Science  does  not  feed  the  soul;  and  it  is  Art 
which  nourishes  the  heart  of  man.  Science  does 
what  it  can;  and  Art  does  what  it  must.  Science 
takes  no  thought  of  the  individual;  and  individ- 
uality is  the  essence  of  Art.  Science  seeks  to  be 
impersonal  and  it  is  ever  struggling  to  cast  out 
what  it  calls  the  personal  equation.  Art  cherishes 
individuality  and  is  what  it  is  because  of  the  dif- 
ferences which  distinguish  one  man  from  another, 
and  therefore  the  loftiest  achievements  of  Art  are 
the  result  of  the  personal  equation  raised  to  the 
highest  power." 

c.  By  Negation 

Closely  akin  to  the  method  just  presented  is 
definition  by  negation;  that  is,  by  clearing  away 
false  notions  from  the  mind  of  the  audience;  by 
explaining  what  the  subject  is  not.  Sometimes 
negative  statements  are  used  exclusively  until 
the  speaker  has  the  ground  cleared  for  the  recep- 
tion   of    the    positive    definition.      Burke,    in    his 


52     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

Conciliation  speech,  affords  a  typical  illustration 
of  this  particular  form. 

"The  proposition  is  peace.  Not  peace  through 
the  medium  of  war;  not  peace  to  be  hunted  through 
the  labyrinth  of  intricate  and  endless  negotia- 
tions; not  peace  to  arise  out  of  universal  discord 
fomented  from  principle  in  all  parts  of  the  empire; 
not  peace  to  depend  on  the  juridical  determination 
of  perplexing  questions,  or  the  precise  marking 
the  shadowy  boundaries  of  a  complex  government. 
It  is  simple  peace,  sought  in  its  natural  course 
and  in  its  ordinary  haunts.  It  is  peace  sought  in 
the  principles  of  peace,  and  laid  in  principles 
purely  pacific.  I  propose  by  removing  the  ground 
of  difference,  and  by  restoring  the  former  unsus- 
pecting confidence  of  the  Colonies  in  the  mother 
country,  to  give  permanent  satisfaction  to  your 
people;  and,  far  from  a  scheme  of  ruling  by  dis- 
cord, to  reconcile  them  to  each  other  in  the  same 
act  and  by  the  bond  of  the  very  same  interest 
which  reconciles  them  to  the  British  government.'* 

Again,  negation  and  affirmation  may  be  Inter- 
mingled, as  In  the  following  passage  from  Matthew 
Arnold: 

"But  there  Is  of  culture  another  view,  In  which 
not  solely  the  scientific  passion,  the  sheer  desire 
to  see  things  as  they  are,  natural  and  proper  In 
an  intelligent  being,  appears  as  the  ground  of  It. 
There  Is  a  view  in  which  all  the  love  of  our  neigh- 


The  Means  of  Substantial  Development    53 

bor,  the  Impulses  toward  action,  help,  and  benef- 
icence, the  desire  for  removing  human  error, 
clearing  human  confusion,  and  diminishing  human 
misery,  the  noble  aspiration  to  leave  the  world 
better  and  happier  than  we  found  it, — motives 
eminently  such  as  are  called  social, — come  in  as 
part  of  the  grounds  of  culture,  and  the  main  and 
pre-eminent  part.  Culture  is  then  properly  de- 
scribed not  as  having  its  origin  in  curiosity,  but 
as  having  its  origin  in  the  love  of  perfection;  it  is 
a  study  of  perfection.  It  moves  by  the  force,  not 
merely  or  primarily  of  the  scientific  passion  for 
pure  knowledge,  but  also  of  the  moral  and  social 
passion  for  doing  good." 

d.  By  Concrete  Example 

One  of  the  simplest,  and  at  the  same  time  most 
effective,  aids  to  definition  is  a  concrete  case  in 
point.  Often  when  abstract  statements  about  a 
proposition  fail  to  reach  home,  or  when  it  is 
desired  to  clinch  an  abstract  presentation,  a 
single  instance  of  the  actual  working  of  the  theory 
advanced  will  clarify  the  understanding  of  the 
audience.  The  illustration  may  even  be  hy- 
pothetical since  it  is  employed  for  the  purpose 
of  explanation,  not  conviction.  Whenever  pos- 
sible, however,  a  real  incident  is  preferable  be- 
cause it  conveys  the  impression  that  the  idea  is  a 
practical,   working  one.     The   example   must  be 


54     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

clearly  to  the  point,  and  care  must  be  taken  never 
to  develop  any  illustrative  feature  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  distracts  the  mind  of  the  audience 
from  the  topic  by  overshadowing  the  idea  which 
the  example  is  intended  to  illuminate.  To  ex- 
emplify the  use  of  the  concrete  case  in  definition, 
let  us  suppose  that  the  topic  of  discussion  is 
"Municipal  Government,"  and  the  particular 
point  to  be  defined,  "Lack  of  Departmental  Co- 
operation," Either  before  or  after  his  abstract 
presentation,  the  speaker  might  say: 

An  instance  happened  a  few  days  ago  in  X  which 
will  serve  to  illustrate  what  I  mean  by  lack  of 
departmental  co-operation.  A  fire  occurred  in 
one  of  the  crowded  sections  of  the  city,  and  after 
it  was  extinguished  a  great  heap  of  drenched  debris 
was  left  in  the  street.  Nearby  residents  brought 
the  matter  to  the  attention  of  the  street-cleaning 
department,  but  owing  to  a  city  ordinance,  this 
department  was  unable  to  remove  the  refuse  with- 
out an  order  from  the  fire  department.  Soon 
stray  animals  and  vermin  began  to  collect,  and, 
as  it  chanced,  the  city  was  at  the  time  in  the 
throes  of  a  children's  epidemic.  Naturally,  the 
attention  of  the  health  and  police  departments 
was  called  to  the  matter;  also  further  appeals  to 
the  street-cleaning  department  were  made  by 
incensed  citizens.  Still  nothing  was  done.  Finally, 
after  five  days  had  elapsed,  an  irate  shop-keeper 


The  Means  of  Substantial  Development    55 

in  the  neighborhood  paid  a  truck-driver  to  haul 
away  the  nuisance.  That  is  what  I  mean  by  lack 
of  departmental  co-operation. 

e.  By  Details 

One  more  means  of  definition  may  be  cited:  the 
method  of  details.  In  following  this  method,  the 
general  concept  is  elucidated  by  an  analysis  into 
the  specific  factors  which  constitute  the  whole. 
This  analytical  process  may  be  applied  to  widely 
diversified  classes  of  subjects,  such  as  a  view,  a 
law,  an  action,  a  process,  a  structure,  a  principle, 
or  an  object.  Anything  which  is  separable  into 
parts  may  profitably  be  subjected  to  detailed 
analysis  if  the  speaker  judges  that  the  eflfect  will 
be  clearer  or  more  impressive  than  that  produced 
by  a  general  statement.  The  following  excerpt 
from  Cardinal  Newman's  definition  of  a  gentle- 
man is  a  very  good  illustration  of  the  method  of 
details. 

"Hence  it  is  that  it  is  almost  a  definition  of  a 
gentleman  to  say  that  he  is  one  who  never  inflicts 
pain.  This  description  is  both  refined  and,  as 
far  as  it  goes,  accurate.  He  is  mainly  occupied 
in  merely  removing  the  obstacles  which  hinder 
the  free  and  unembarrassed  action  of  those  about 
him;  and  he  concurs  with  their  movements  rather 
than  takes  the  initiative  himself.  His  benefits 
may  be  considered  as  parallel  to  what  are  called 


56     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

comforts  or  conveniences  in  arrangements  of  a 
personal  nature:  like  an  easy  chair  or  a  good  fire, 
which  do  their  part  in  dispelling  cold  and  fatigue, 
though  nature  provides  both  means  of  rest  and 
animal  heat  without  them.  The  true  gentleman 
in  like  manner  carefully  avoids  whatever  may 
cause  a  jar  or  jolt  in  the  minds  of  those  with 
whom  he  is  cast, — all  clashing  of  opinion,  or  col- 
lision of  feeling,  all  restraint,  or  suspicion,  or  gloom, 
or  resentment;  his  great  concern  being  to  make 
everyone  at  his  ease  and  at  home.  He  has  his 
eyes  on  all  the  company;  he  is  tender  toward  the 
bashful,  gentle  toward  the  distant,  and  merciful 
toward  the  absurd;  he  can  recollect  to  whom  he 
is  speaking;  he  guards  against  unseasonable  al- 
lusions, or  topics  which  may  irritate;  he  is  seldom 
prominent  In  conversation,  and  never  wearisome. 
He  makes  light  of  favors  while  he  does  them,  and 
seems  to  be  receiving  when  he  is  conferring.  He 
never  speaks  of  himself  except  when  compelled, 
never  defends  himself  by  a  mere  retort;  he  has  no 
ears  for  slander  or  gossip,  Is  scrupulous  in  imput- 
ing motives  to  those  who  interfere  with  him,  and 
interprets  everything  for  the  best.  He  is  never 
mean  or  little  In  his  disputes,  never  takes  unfair 
advantage,  never  mistakes  personalities  or  sharp 
sayings  for  arguments,  or  Insinuates  evil  which 
he  dare  not  say  out.  From  a  long-sighted  prudence 
he  observes  the  maxim  of  the  ancient  sage,  that 


The  Means  of  Substantial  Development    57 

we  should  ever  conduct  ourselves  towards  our 
enemy  as  If  he  were  one  day  to  be  our  friend.  He 
has  too  much  good  sense  to  be  affronted  at  insults, 
he  is  too  well  employed  to  remember  injuries, 
and  too  indolent  to  bear  malice.  He  is  patient, 
forbearing,  and  resigned,  on  philosophical  prin- 
ciples; he  submits  to  pain,  because  it  is  inevitable, 
to  bereavement  because  it  is  irreparable,  and  to 
death  because  it  is  his  destiny." 

It  is  of  course  patent  that  the  detailed  organiza- 
tion of  the  above  passage  can  hardly  be  paralleled 
in  extemporaneous  speech;  but  the  striking  effect 
of  its  finished  elaboration  suggests  that  in  using 
any  method  of  definition  the  speaker  may  profit 
greatly  by  being  sure  that  the  subject  is  clearly 
defined  in  his  own  mind.  Furthermore,  it  is  de- 
sirable that  as  far  as  possible  he  should  determine 
while  planning  his  address  the  methods  he  will 
use  in  defining  the  more  important  ideas.  With 
a  knowledge  of  the  various  means  of  exposition 
previously  discussed,  he  may  trust  to  impromptu 
explanation  of  matters  of  minor  importance. 

D.  Summary 

At  the  opening  of  this  chapter  it  was  pointed 
out  that  no  one  detailed  plan  of  procedure  could 
be  suggested  for  handling  the  wide  variety  of 
topics  used  by  speakers.  Certain  general  principles 
of  construction,  however,  which  apply  under  any 


58     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

circumstances,  have  been  presented.  It  was  em- 
phasized at  the  outset  that  every  topic  should 
be  elaborated  with  clearly  defined  substance, 
directed  toward  making  a  distinct  and  lasting 
impression  on  the  audience.  The  first  step  advo- 
cated for  this  purpose  was  the  selection  of  a  main 
theme,  or  central  idea.  The  next  requisite  pro- 
posed was  the  providing  of  leading  points  which 
definitely  support  the  main  theme.  The  third 
factor  to  be  discussed  was  the  methods  of  elaborat- 
ing these  leading  points.  They  may  be  summed 
up  as  follows:  (i)  by  citing  specific  examples; 
(2)  by  applying  the  principle  of  antecedent  proba- 
bility; (3)  by  using  analogy;  (4)  by  proceeding 
from  effect  to  cause;  (5)  or  from  cause  to  effect; 
(6)  by  developing  a  point  from  the  general  to  the 
specific;  i.  e.,  by  deduction;  (7)  by  employing  nar- 
ration or  description;  (8)  by  definition  in  the 
form  of  repetition,  comparison  or  contrast,  nega- 
tion, concrete  example,  or  detailed  analysis. 

These  eight  methods,  with  the  various  modifica- 
tions and  combinations  which  will  occur  to  the 
speaker  in  working  up  a  given  subject,  provide 
adequate  means  for  elaborating  in  substantial 
manner  a  wide  diversity  of  topics.  We  may  now 
turn  to  methods  of  arrangement  which  will  further 
help  the  speaker  to  realize  the  ends  sought  in  the 
body  of  the  discussion. 


CHAPTER  V 

ARRANGING  THE  MATERIAL 

Concerning  arrangement,  as  was  stated  of  sub- 
ject-matter, it  must  be  understood  that  no  one 
method  will  fit  all  speeches.  Nor  is  it  likely  that 
any  one  address  will  follow  a  single  plan  through- 
out the  entire  development.  The  speaker  can 
ordinarily  lay  out  the  main  headings,  or  "trunk 
lines,"  of  a  given  discourse  according  to  the  one 
method  which  seems  best  calculated  to  carry  his 
message  as  a  whole.  But  in  the  arrangement  of 
subordinate  parts,  he  must  feel  free  to  employ 
such  various  methods  as  fit  those  parts.  Some  of 
these  methods,  which  may  be  termed  logical,  are 
inherent  in  the  particular  kind  of  subject-matter 
discussed;  others  are  based  upon  psychological 
relationships;  still  other  methods  depend  neither 
upon  logic  nor  psychology,  strictly  speaking,  but 
are  arbitrarily  designed  for  special  effects. 

A.  Logical  Methods  of  Arrangement 

I.  Cause  and  Effect 

Arrangement  based  on  cause  and  efi"ect  is  used, 
as  the  name  implies,  when  discussing  causal  rela- 

59 


6o    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

tionships.  Tlie  essential  thing  to  observe  in 
employing  this  method  is  the  avoidance  of  the 
confusion  which  is  likely  to  result  from  moving 
backward  and  forward  between  cause  and  effect. 
It  is  usually  possible  to  obviate  this  shortcoming 
by  completing  the  discussion  of  the  cause  or  the 
effect,  as  the  case  may  be,  before  proceeding  to 
the  other  factor.  Notice  how  this  is  exemplified 
in  the  following  passage  from  Carlyle's  "Essay 
on  Burns." 

"Picturesque  tourists,  all  manner  of  fashionable 
danglers  after  literature,  and,  far  worse,  all  manner 
of  convivial  Maecenases,  hovered  round  him 
[Burns]  in  his  retreat;  and  his  good  as  well  as  his 
weak  qualities  secured  them  influence  over  him. 
He  was  flattered  by  their  notice;  and  his  warm 
social  nature  made  it  impossible  for  him  to  shake 
them  off,  and  hold  on  his  way  apart  from  them. 
These  men,  as  we  believe,  were  proximately  the 
means  of  his  ruin.  Not  that  they  meant  him 
any  ill;  they  only  meant  themselves  a  little  good; 
if  he  suffered  harm,  let  him  look  to  it!  But  they 
wasted  his  precious  time  and  his  precious  talent; 
they  disturbed  his  composure,  broke  down  his 
returning  habits  of  temperance  and  assiduous 
contented  exertion.  Their  pampering  was  baneful 
to  him;  their  cruelty,  which  soon  followed,  was 
equally  baneful.  The  old  grudge  against  For- 
tune's  inequahty  awoke  with   new  bitterness   in 


Arranging  the  Material  6l 

their  neighborhood;  and  Burns  had  no  retreat 
but  to  'the  Rock  of  Independence,'  which  is  but 
an  air-castle  after  all,  that  looks  well  at  a  distance, 
but  will  screen  no  one  from  real  wind  and  wet. 
Flushed  with  irregular  excitement,  exasperated 
alternately  by  contempt  of  others,  and  contempt 
of  himself,  Burns  was  no  longer  regaining  his 
peace  of  mind,  but  fast  losing  it  forever.  There 
was  a  hoUowness  at  the  heart  of  his  life,  for  his 
conscience  did  not  now  approve  what  he  was 
doing." 

II.  Chronological  Order 

The  chronological  or  time  order  is  applicable 
whenever  the  subject-matter  is  concerned  with 
events  in  sequence.  It  may  be  well  to  note  that 
constant  and  explicit  references  to  the  details  of 
chronology  are  very  apt  to  produce  a  dry,  me- 
chanical effect.  For  instance,  a  month  by  month 
or  year  by  year  development  if  at  all  prolonged, 
and  particularly  if  the  time  and  not  the  essence 
of  the  events  is  made  prominent,  would  fatigue 
the  most  long-suffering  audience.  Another  thing 
to  beware  of  Is  the  confusion  which  results  from 
jumping  backward  and  forward  in  chronology. 
The  speaker  may  profitably  take  advantage  of 
time  order  in  arrangement  but  he  should  avoid 
the  pitfalls  of  the  method  by  moving  constantly 
forward,    and    by    bringing    out    the    significance 


62     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

of  the  events,  with  a  corresponding  subordina- 
tion of  the  mere  chronological  details  unless 
they  be  of  especial  importance.  The  following 
brief  outline  will  serve  to  suggest  how  time  order 
may  furnish  the  basis  of  arrangement  for  various 
topics. 

The  Anthracite  Coal-Strike  of  1902 

A.  Introduction  (The  Basic  Conditions). 

B.  The  Beginning. 

C.  The  Development. 

D.  The  Climax. 

E.  The  Settlement. 

F.  Conclusion  (Significance  for  the  Future). 

III.  Space  Order 

Space  order  applies  chiefly  to  descriptive  mat- 
ter, but  may  be  useful  whenever  the  subject  of 
the  speech,  or  any  part  of  it,  deals  with  material 
which  can  be  conveniently  treated  on  a  basis  of 
space  relationship.  The  regular  and  most  orderly 
plan  of  development  is  to  select  a  significant  point 
of  departure,  such  as  center,  top  or  bottom,  end, 
nearest  or  farthest  location,  and  proceed  with  the 
parts,  objects  or  places  in  the  order  of  their  posi- 
tion in  space.  A  typical  instance  of  the  regular 
space  order  is  aflForded  by  a  passage  from  Scott's 
description  of  Cedric  the  Saxon. 


Arranging  the  Material  63 

"His  face  was  broad,  with  large  blue  eyes,  open 
and  frank  features,  fine  teeth,  and  a  well  formed 
head,  altogether  expressive  of  that  sort  of  good 
humor  which  often  lodges  with  a  sudden  and 
hasty  temper.  Pride  and  jealousy  there  was  In 
his  eye,  for  his  life  had  been  spent  in  asserting 
rights  which  were  constantly  Hable  to  Invasion; 
and  the  prompt,  fiery  and  resolute  disposition  of 
the  man  had  been  kept  constantly  upon  the  alert 
by  the  circumstances  of  his  situation.  His  long 
yellow  hair  was  equally  divided  on  the  top  of  his 
head  and  upon  his  brow,  and  combed  down  on 
each  side  to  the  length  of  his  shoulders:  it  had  but 
little  tendency  to  grey,  although  Cedric  was  ap- 
proaching to  his  sixtieth  year.  His  dress  was  a 
tunic  of  forest  green,  furred  at  the  throat  and 
cuffs  with  what  was  called  minever — a  kind  of 
fur  Inferior  In  quality  to  ermine,  and  formed.  It  Is 
believed,  of  the  skin  of  the  grey  squirrel.  This 
doublet  hung  unbuttoned  over  a  close  dress  of 
scarlet  which  sat  tight  to  his  body;  he  had  breeches 
of  the  same,  but  they  did  not  reach  below  the  lower 
part  of  the  thigh,  leaving  the  knee  exposed.  His 
feet  had  sandals  of  the  same  fashion  with  the 
peasants,  but  of  finer  materials,  and  secured  in 
front  with  golden  clasps." 

Such  a  directly  progressive  arrangement  makes 
for  clearness  of  visualization  on  the  part  of  the 
audience.    However,  a  word  of  caution  is  desirable 


64     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

against  following  regular  space  order  blindly.  If 
the  speaker  judges  that  any  given  object  or  scene 
could  be  more  strikingly  depicted  by  using  another 
method,  say  the  order  of  relative  importance,  or 
association  of  ideas,  he  should  not  hesitate  |;o 
employ  it.  Indeed,  for  creating  a  general  impres- 
sion, an  appreciation  of  "atmosphere,"  it  is  better 
to  select  suggestive  details,  without  reference  to 
regular  space  order.  The  effectiveness  of  this 
method  is  clearly  exemplified  in  Washington 
Irvlng's  picture  of  the  Stratford  sexton's  cottage. 
"His  dwelling  was  a  cottage  looking  out  upon 
the  Avon  and  its  bordering  meadows,  and  was  a 
picture  of  that  neatness,  order  and  comfort  which 
pervade  the  humblest  dwellings  in  this  country. 
A  low  whitewashed  room,  with  a  stone  floor  care- 
fully scrubbed,  served  for  parlor,  kitchen,  and 
hall.  Rows  of  pewter  and  earthen  dishes  glittered 
along  the  dresser.  On  an  old  oaken  table,  well 
rubbed  and  polished,  lay  the  family  Bible  and 
prayer-book,  and  the  drawer  contained  the  family 
library,  composed  of  about  half  a  score  of  well- 
thumbed  volumes.  An  ancient  clock,  that  im- 
portant article  of  cottage  furniture,  ticked  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  room,  with  a  bright  warming 
pan  hanging  on  one  side  of  it,  and  the  old  man's 
horn-handled  Sunday  cane  on  the  other.  The 
fire-place,  as  usual,  was  wide  and  deep  enough  to 
admit  a  gossip  knot  within  its  jambs." 


Arranging  the  Material  65 

A  more  harmonious  combination  of  arbitrarily- 
grouped  details  could  hardly  be  imagined.  The 
effect  is  highly  artistic.  When,  however,  a  speaker 
desires  to  convey  a  more  definite,  or  better,  a  more 
photographic  idea  of  the  relationship  of  parts, 
space  order  is  preferable.  It  is  of  great  advantage 
also  when  the  topic  lends  itself  to  an  analysis 
based  upon  space  divisions,  such  as  the  following. 

New  York  State  Farming 


A. 

Introduction. 

B. 

The  Northern  Counties. 

a.  East. 

b.  Middle. 

c.  West. 

C. 

The  Middle  Counties. 

D. 

The  Southern  Counties. 

E. 

Conclusion. 

IV.  Predetermined  Analysis 

A  fourth  logical  plan  of  arrangement  is  based 
on  a  predetermined  division  of  the  subject.  This 
method  is  applicable  when  the  subject  of  discus- 
sion is  a  resolution  or  measure  consisting  of  dis- 
tinct clauses.  Unless  the  subject-matter  requires 
special  arrangement,  such  as  procedure  from 
simple  to  complex  or  less  important  to  more  im- 
portant, the  speaker  will  do  well  to  take  up  the 


66     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

clauses  in  the  order  of  their  appearance  in  the 
measure  under  consideration.  For  example,  an 
enactment  known  as  the  "Widows'  Pension  Law" 
has  just  been  passed.  Reduced  to  its  simplest 
form,  it  contains  four  provisions: 

"  I.  It  gives  ^20  a  month  to  all  Civil  War  widows 
who  were  married  to  their  husbands  during  their 
husband's  service. 

"2.  All  widows  of  veterans  who  have  now  reached 
or  may  reach  the  age  of  seventy  years  will  receive 
$20  a  month. 

"3.  All  widows  of  Civil  War  veterans  who  were 
dropped  by  reason  of  their  remarriage,  and  who 
again  became  widows,  either  by  reason  of  the 
death  of  their  second  husbands  or  by  divorces, 
for  which  they  were  not  to  blame,  will  be  restored 
to  their  pensionable  status. 

"4.  The  limitation  on  marriages  is  extended  15 
years,  from  1890  to  1905.  This  extension  of  15 
years,  it  Is  hoped,  will  include  the  great  mass  of 
those  who  married  their  husbands  after  the  pas- 
sage of  the  act  of  1890." 

Such  an  analysis  constitutes  a  very  serviceable 
basis  for  the  arrangement  of  material  in  a  speech 
which  essays  to  discuss  each  section  of  an  itemized 
measure. 


Arranging  the  Material  Gf 

B.  Arrangement  on  a  Psychological  Basis 

I.  Simple  or  Familiar  to  Complex  or  Unfamiliar 

If  a  given  topic  involves  phases  which  are  com- 
paratively familiar,  or  simple,  easily  compre- 
hended, and  others  which  are  unfamiliar,  or 
complex  and  difficult  to  grasp,  it  is  desirable  to 
proceed  from  the  known  to  the  unknown,  from 
the  simple  to  the  complex.  In  using  this  plan  the 
speaker  not  only  avoids  mystifying  or  discourag- 
ing his  audience  at  the  outset,  but  he  also  prepares 
it,  as  he  proceeds,  to  understand  matters  of  in- 
creasing complexity.  The  same  principle  which 
governs  the  arrangement  of  material  in  an  arith- 
metic may  well  be  applied  to  speech-material.  A 
talk  on  popular  elections,  for  example,  might 
begin  with  a  discussion  of  the  town-meeting,  pro- 
ceed through  municipal,  county,  and  state  elec- 
tions, and  finally  arrive  at  an  exposition  of  the 
manner  of  choosing  the  national  executive. 

11.  Association  of  Ideas 

Association  of  ideas  constitutes  the  basis  of 
one  of  the  most  advantageous  and  commonly  used 
methods  of  arrangement.  Many  discussions  which 
do  not  lend  themselves  to  the  time,  space,  simple 
to  complex,  or  other  method  of  procedure  are 
effectively  carried  forward  by  the  impetus  of  sue- 


68     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

cessive  suggestions.  That  Is,  point  A  suggests 
point  B,  which  In  turn  suggests  point  C,  etc. 
The  field  of  suggestiveness  or  association  of  Ideas 
comprises,  among  other  things,  contraries,  such 
as  black — white,  Protestant — Catholic,  Republi- 
can— Democrat,  ancient — modern;  also  habitually 
linked  phases  or  phenomena,  such  as  Intellectual — 
physical — spiritual,  labor — capital — consumer,  up- 
per classes — middle  classes — lower  classes, 
cost — power — speed — endurance  (of  a  machine). 
The  other  evening  a  very  capable  salesman 
furnished  me  with  a  practical  application  of 
arrangement  by  association  of  Ideas.  I  asked 
him  the  price  of  one  of  his  phonographs.  He 
stated  the  price,  and  proceeded  to  compare  the 
prices  of  rival  Instruments,  which  were  some- 
what less  expensive.  This  fact  led  him  to  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  greater  beauty  and  volume  of 
tone  In  the  machine  which  he  was  selling.  His 
talk  then  turned  naturally  to  an  explanation  of 
the  superior  construction  and  operation  of  the 
reproducing  appliances.  This  phase  brought  to 
mind  the  question  of  records  and  the  great  ad- 
vantage of  his  phonograph  in  that  respect. 

Success  In  applying  this  method  depends  in  no 
small  degree  upon  the  skill  with  which  the  speaker 
leads  one  phase  Into  the  next.  It  should  be  done 
in  such  a  way  that  the  sequence  A-B-C-D,  etc., 
appeals  to  the  audience   as  a  most  natural  one. 


Arranging  the  Material  69 

The  secret  Hes,  first,  in  a  little  careful  thinking 
which  seizes  upon  the  essential  points  of  contact 
between  the  various  phases  of  a  discussion;  and, 
second,  in  a  well-phrased  indication  of  these  points 
of  contact  as  a  guarantee  that  the  audience  will 
see  the  connection  as  the  speaker  has  thought  it 
out. 

C.  Arrangement  for  Special  Effects 

I.  Special  Interests 

The  speaker  may  choose  arbitrarily  to  open 
the  body  of  the  discussion  with  a  phase  which 
he  thinks  will  be  of  particular  interest  to  his  lis- 
teners. This  would  be  especially  desirable  when 
a  given  audience  is  known  to  be  more  concerned 
about  a  certain  aspect  of  a  question  than  about 
others  equally  important,  perhaps,  from  a  broader 
viewpoint.  Under  such  conditions  it  would  be 
unwise  to  try  first  to  interest  one's  auditors  in 
points  which  they  felt  were  of  minor  significance. 
For  example.  New  York  City  to-day  is  agitated 
by  the  question  of  a  railroad  right  of  way  along 
a  water-front.  There  are  three  important  phases 
involved:  the  legality  of  the  matter,  the  material 
advantage  to  the  public  and  the  road,  and  the 
aesthetic  aspect.  To  certain  people  the  last 
phase  is  of  such  overwhelming  significance  that 
they  are  inclined  to  dismiss  any  other  considcra- 


yo    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

tion  with  more  or  less  scorn.  In  addressing  such 
a  group  it  would  be  highly  desirable  to  arrange 
one's  material  so  as  first  to  satisfy  their  paramount 
interest.  After  that  they  might  be  more  effect- 
ively attentive  to  the  other  important  considera- 
tions. This  point  regarding  arrangement  suggests 
a  very  noteworthy  principle  of  public  speaking 
which  will  be  touched  upon  later;  namely:  that  the 
speaker  should  always  develop  his  address  with 
a  keen  appreciation  of  what  the  audience  may  be 
thinking  and  feeling  about  the  subject. 

II.  Submerging  Minor  Points 

It  is  advantageous,  whenever  feasible,  to  place 
the  least  significant  or  most  weakly  supported 
points  in  the  middle  of  the  development.  In 
that  position  they  are  least  likely  to  leave  an 
unfavorable  impression.  And  inasmuch  as  it  is 
necessarily  the  fate  of  certain  points  to  be  in  a 
measure  submerged  in  the  mass,  the  weaker  ones 
deserve  it.  In  following  this  suggestion  the 
speaker  is  cautioned  not  carelessly  to  permit  it 
to  take  precedence  over  the  principles  of  arrange- 
ment based  on  logic  and  psychology.  It  would 
ordinarily  be  unwise,  for  instance,  to  distort  time 
or  space  order,  or  to  disturb  the  progress  of  asso- 
ciated phases  merely  for  the  sake  of  burying  a 
relatively  unimportant  point.  However,  the 
method  under  consideration  can  almost  always  be 


Arranging  the  Material  71 

employed  to  good  advantage  when  the  question 
of  order  Is  largely  one  of  placing  for  emphasis. 
To  Illustrate,  we  may  take  such  a  set  of  points  as 
was  suggested  for  the  support  of  the  street-car 
advertising  topic: 

A.  Street-car  advertising  commands  attention. 

B.  It  arouses  interest. 

C.  It  has  an  enormous  circulation. 

D.  It  appeals  at  advantageous  times. 

E.  It  is  relatively  cheap. 

Now,  the  above  arrangement  Is,  perhaps,  no 
better  than  several  others.  If  for  his  particular 
purpose  the  speaker  judges  that  points  D  and  E 
are  weakest,  he  should  shift  them  to  the  positions 
of  B  and  C.  Then,  of  course,  he  would  develop 
the  points  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  them  cohere 
to  the  phases  before  and  after.  The  illustration 
is  typical  of  many  groups  which  may  profitably 
be  arranged  In  accordance  with  the  plan  of  sub- 
merging minor  considerations. 

III.  Placing  the  Most  Important  Phase 

We  come  now  to  the  paramount  feature  of  ar- 
bitrary arrangement.  This  Is  the  placing  of  the 
most  important  phase  of  the  discussion.  Owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  material  at  the  close  of  the 
body  is  left  in  the  minds  of  the  audience  unen- 
cumbered by  other  points,  the  speaker  ought  to 
make  a   special   effort  to  present  here   the  chief 


72     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

consideration.  In  discussions  which  permit  of 
such  flexible  adjustment  as  was  illustrated  in  the 
preceding  paragraph  this  arrangement  is  an  easy 
matter.  But  where  the  topic  lends  itself  best  to 
a  plan  of  arrangement  based  strictly  on,  let  us 
say,  time,  space,  or  association  of  ideas,  there  may 
be  some  difficulty  in  placing  the  most  significant 
phase  in  the  position  of  emphasis.  It  can  be  done, 
however,  without  giving  a  noticeable  effect  of 
distortion  or  incoherence.  Take,  for  example, 
the  outline  previously  suggested  in  the  discussion 
of  time  order: 

The  Coal  Strike  of  1902 

A.  Introduction  (The  Basic  Conditions). 

B.  The  Beginning. 

C.  The  Development. 

D.  The  Climax. 

E.  The  Settlement. 

F.  Conclusion  (Significance  for  the  Future). 
Let  us  suppose  that  by  far  the  most  important 

phase  chances  to  be  "The  Development."  The 
speaker  may  treat  it  briefly  in  its  proper  time 
order  and  then  recur  to  it  again  just  before  the 
conclusion  with  some  such  introduction  as  fol- 
lows: Of  the  various  phases  upon  which  I  have 
touched,  one  period  stands  out  as  the  most  mo- 
mentous: the  period  which  witnessed  the  acts  of 
unbridled  lawlessness  on  the  part  of  the  men,  and 


Arranging  the  Material  73 

of  intimidation  on  the  part  of  the  operators.  We 
have  already  considered  this  phase  in  a  general 
way,  but  a  more  detailed  examination  is  essential 
to  a  full  appreciation  not  only  of  its  actual  results, 
but  also  of  its  implications,  etc.  Such  a  method 
of  treatment  is  widely  applicable,  and  since  it  is 
of  undoubted  value  to  get  the  emphatic  phase  at 
the  close  of  the  discussion,  it  should  be  freely 
employed. 

D.  Summary 

In  this  chapter  we  have  considered  the  different 
methods  of  arrangement  available  for  various 
topics  and  aims.  It  was  pointed  out  that  while 
no  one  method  would  ordinarily  be  used  for  the 
development  of  a  subject  in  every  detail,  a  con- 
sistent plan  of  procedure  for  the  main  divisions  is 
best  calculated  to  drive  home  the  speaker's  mes- 
sage. Sub-heads  may  then  be  arranged  according 
to  various  other  methods  as  may  seem  fitting. 

The  methods  of  arrangement  were  presented  in 
three  groups.  The  first  of  these,  termed  logical, 
comprises:  (i)  the  cause  and  effect  method,  which 
provides  for  handling  causal  relationships;  (2)  time 
order,  which  presents  material  in  a  direct  chrono- 
logical sequence;  (3)  space  order,  adapted  to  the 
development  of  topics  which  involve  place  rela- 
tionships; and  (4)  arrangement  following  pre- 
determined analysis,  for  use  in  discussing  an  item- 


74    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

ized  proposition  or  measure.  The  second  group, 
called  psychological,  comprises:  (i)  the  method 
of  proceeding  from  the  familiar,  or  simple,  to  the 
unknown,  or  complex;  and  (2)  procedure  by  suc- 
cessive suggestions,  a  method  based  on  association 
if  ideas.  The  third  group  comprises  three  sugges- 
tions for  placing  certain  points  in  the  most  ad- 
vantageous positions:  (i)  by  opening  the  body 
of  the  speech  with  a  phase  of  predominant  in- 
terest to  a  given  audience;  (2)  by  submerging 
minor,  or  least  strongly  developed,  points  in  the 
middle  of  the  discourse;  and  (3)  by  placing  the 
most  significant  phase,  or  recurring  to  this  phase, 
at  the  close  of  the  body. 

It  would  be  an  exaggeration  to  claim  for  ar- 
rangement as  important  a  place  in  speech  con- 
struction as  for  subject-matter.  A  comparison 
with  architecture,  however,  presents  a  fair  anal- 
ogy: you  must  first  have  the  material  to  build 
with,  but  it  makes  a  vast  difference  to  the  struc- 
ture how  you  arrange  that  material.  Later  on 
when  we  take  up  the  subject  of  building  an  out- 
line, the  force  of  this  analogy  will  be  even  more 
obvious. 


CHAPTER  VI 

CONCLUDING  A  SPEECH 

Having  before  us  the  various  possibilities  for 
introducing,  developing,  and  arranging  the  ma- 
terial of  an  address,  we  shall  now  consider  how 
it  may  be  terminated  In  such  a  way  as  to  realize 
the  aims  of  the  conclusion.  These  may  be  briefly 
restated  as  follows:  to  give  an  impression  of  com- 
pleteness; to  establish  finally  the  central  idea;  to 
arouse  enthusiasm  for  the  speaker's  views;  and 
to  stimulate  action,  if  active  response  is  desired. 

A.  The  Effect  of  Completeness 

Sometimes,  owing  to  limitation  of  time  or  re- 
striction of  his  topic,  a  speaker  deems  it  unwise 
to  touch  upon  every  important  phase  of  the  gen- 
eral subject  of  discussion.  Under  such  circum- 
stances the  audience,  failing  to  divine  his  reason, 
may  get  the  Impression  that  the  speaker  has  pur- 
posely evaded  certain  Issues.  Or  it  may  feel  that 
he  has  not  been  fully  aware  of  the  possibilities 
of  the  subject.  This  undesirable  impression  will 
ordinarily  be  provided  against  In  the  Introductory 
analysis;  but  If  the  speaker  has  any  doubt  about 

75 


76     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

the  matter  when  he  reaches  his  concluding  sec- 
tion, he  should  take  care  to  explain  any  significant 
omission. 

The  next  step  toward  rounding  out  the  address 
may  be  taken  by  using  one  or  both  of  the  follow- 
ing means.  The  first  of  these  is  a  succinct  restate- 
ment of  the  leading  points  which  have  contrib- 
uted to  the  support  of  the  main  theme.  Such  a 
resume  is  not  always  necessary,  especially  if  the 
speech  Is  brief  and  the  points  are  reiterated  in  the 
development.  The  second  means,  which  may  take 
the  place  of  the  resume  or  be  used  In  conjunction 
with  it.  Is  a  general  statement  indicating  how  the 
speaker  has  tried  to  view  fairly  the  various  factors 
involved,  and  to  concern  himself  with  the  various 
Interests  affected. 

B.  Clinching  the  Central  Idea 

Thus  briefly,  but  without  abruptness,  the 
speaker  leads  up  to  the  highly  Important  final 
statement  of  the  central  purpose  of  his  address. 
This  should  be  expressed  In  such  clear,  unham- 
pered, and  emphatic  form  that  no  Individual  In 
the  audience  can  fall  to  be  impressed  by  It. 

C.  The  Emotional  Appeal 

Now  comes  the  opportunity,  providing  the 
topic  of  the  speech  warrants  it,  to  apply  the  mes- 


Concluding  a  Speech  77 

sage  directly  to  the  audience;  to  show  how  their 
material  interests,  or  their  rights,  patriotism, 
fellow-sympathy,  sense  of  justice,  self-respect,  ap- 
preciation of  good,  disapprobation  of  evil — how 
any  of  these  things  are  related  to  the  speaker's 
message.  Sometimes,  for  practical  purposes,  the 
appeal  is  necessarily  or  desirably  restricted  to  a 
utilitarian  motive.  For  instance,  this  would  or- 
dinarily be  the  case,  in  urging  a  committee  to 
grant  the  speaker's  company  a  paving  or  construc- 
tion contract.  But  whenever  the  development 
of  the  speech  has  enhsted  the  sympathies  of  the 
listeners,  they  will  be  emotionally  prepared  to 
catch  the  enthusiasm  of  the  speaker,  particularly 
if  they  feel  that  he  is  sincerely  moved  by  an  ele- 
vated feeling.  For  example,  an  address  opposing 
further  restriction  of  immigration,  after  develop- 
ing the  subject  with  respect  to  industry,  health, 
morals,  standard  of  living,  etc.,  might  be  advan- 
tageously closed  with  an  emotional  appeal  to 
generosity,  fellow-sympathy,  or  the  maintenance 
of  our  traditional  hospitality.  Or,  should  the 
speaker  advocate  further  restriction,  his  closing 
appeal  might  be  to  the  sense  of  justice  to  Ameri- 
cans, who  must  suffer  from  a  further  importation 
of  questionable  foreign  characters.  The  close  of 
Burke's  "Conciliation"  speech  affords  an  apt 
concrete  illustration  of  what  is  meant  by  this 
appeal  to  the  emotions  in  the  appHcation  of  the 


yS     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

message  to  the  audience.  After  a  development 
which  has  built  up  solidly  the  material  reasons  for 
a  conciliatory  attitude  toward  the  Colonies,  Burke 
says: 

"As  long  as  you  have  the  wisdom  to  keep  the 
sovereign  authority  of  this  country  as  the  sanc- 
tuary of  liberty,  the  sacred  temple  consecrated 
to  our  common  faith,  wherever  the  chosen  race 
and  sons  of  England  worship  Freedom  they  will 
turn  their  faces  toward  you.  The  more  they  mul- 
tiply, the  more  friends  you  will  have.  The  more 
ardently  they  love  liberty,  the  more  perfect  will 
be  their  obedience.  Deny  them  participation  of 
Freedom,  and  you  break  the  sole  bond  which 
originally  made,  and  must  still  preserve  the  unity 
of  the  Empire.  Do  not  entertain  so  weak  an 
imagination  as  that  your  registers  and  your 
bonds,  your  affidavits  and  your  sufferances,  are 
what  form  the  great  securities  of  your  commerce. 
Do  not  dream  that  your  letters  of  office  and  your 
instructions,  and  your  suspending  clauses  are  the 
things  that  hold  together  the  great  contexture  of 
this  mysterious  whole.  These  things  do  not  make 
your  government.  It  is  the  spirit  of  the  English 
Constitution,  which,  infused  through  the  mighty 
mass,  pervades,  feeds,  unites,  invigorates,  vivifies 
every  part  of  the  Empire,  even  down  to  the 
minutest  member. 

*'Is  it  not  the  same  virtue  which  does  every- 


Concluding  a  Speech  79 

thing  for  us  here  in  England?  Do  you  imagine, 
then,  that  it  is  the  Land  Tax  Act  which  raises 
your  revenue?  that  it  is  the  annual  vote  in  the 
Committee  of  Supply  which  gives  you  your  army? 
or  that  it  is  the  Mutiny  Bill  which  inspires  it  with 
bravery  and  discipline?  No!  surely  no!  It  is  the 
love  of  the  people;  it  is  their  attachment  to  their 
government,  from  the  sense  of  the  deep  stake 
they  have  in  such  a  glorious  institution,  which 
gives  you  your  army  and  your  navy,  and  infuses 
into  both  that  liberal  obedience  without  which 
your  army  would  be  a  base  rabble,  and  your  navy 
nothing  but  rotten  timber. 

"All  this  I  know  well  enough  will  sound  wild 
and  chimerical  to  the  profane  herd  of  vulgar  and 
mechanical  politicians,  who  have  no  place  among 
us, — a  sort  of  people  who  think  that  nothing  exists 
but  what  is  gross  and  material  and  who,  there- 
fore, far  from  being  qualified  to  be  directors  of 
the  great  movement  of  empire,  are  not  fit  to  turn 
a  wheel  in  the  machine.  But  to  men  truly  initiated 
and  rightly  taught,  these  ruling  and  master  prin- 
ciples, which  in  the  opinion  of  such  men  as  I  have 
mentioned  have  no  substantial  existence,  are  in 
truth  everything  and  all  in  all. 

"Magnanimity  in  politics  is  not  seldom  the 
truest  wisdom;  and  a  great  empire  and  little  minds 
go  ill  together.  If  we  are  conscious  of  our  situa- 
tion, and  glow  with  zeal  to  fill  our  place  as  becomes 


8o     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

our  station  and  ourselves,  we  ought  to  elevate 
our  minds  to  the  greatness  of  that  trust  to  which 
the  order  of  Providence  has  called  us.  By  advert- 
ing to  the  dignity  of  this  high  calling,  our  ancestors 
have  turned  a  savage  wilderness  into  a  glorious 
empire,  and  have  made  the  most  extensive  and 
the  only  honorable  conquests  not  by  destroying, 
but  by  promoting  the  wealth,  the  number,  the 
happiness  of  the  human  race.  Let  us  get  an 
American  revenue  as  we  have  got  an  American 
empire.  English  privileges  have  made  it  all  that 
it  is;  English  privileges  alone  will  make  it  all 
that  it  can  be." 

D.  Exhorting  to  Action 

Occasionally  the  speaker  will  aim  at  an  active 
response  to  his  words.  In  this  case  his  final 
sentences  may  specifically  exhort  to  action:  to 
ballot  for  the  candidate  advocated;  to  contribute 
to  the  cause  espoused;  to  vote  for  the  adoption 
of  the  measure  proposed.  In  such  an  appeal  for 
action  it  is  especially  advantageous  for  the  speaker 
to  arouse  fervor,  directing  his  attention  not 
merely  to  the  audience  as  an  impersonal  body, 
but  also  to  individual  members  here  and  there. 
If  he  can  make  Mr.  A  and  Mrs.  G  and  Mr.  Y  be- 
lieve and  feel  that  the  cause  he  pleads  is  their 
cause,   that   their   real   support   as   well   as   their 


Concluding  a  Speech  8l 

sympathy  is  essential  to  the  cause,  they  will 
reach  for  their  pocket-books.  And  when  that  is 
accomplished  the  well-known  psychology  of  the 
crowd  will  take  care  of  the  rest. 


E.  Summary 

To  sum  up,  we  have  seen  that  the  purposes  of 
the  conclusion  are  best  served  in  the  following 
ways:  (i)  by  taking  care  to  explain  any  omission 
of  important  phases  connected  with  the  subject, 
and  by  restating  the  main  points  supporting  the 
central  theme,  and  indicating  how  all  factors  and 
interests  have  been  duly  considered;  (2)  by  giving 
a  final  emphatic  embodiment  of  the  chief  message; 

(3)  by  applying  the  message  to  the  audience  in  an 
appeal  to  their  most  vital  interests  involved;  and 

(4)  by  pointing  out,  when  occasion  requires,  how 
these  interests  may  be  served  by  action,  and 
stating  specifically  what  that  action  should  be. 

With  the  possible  exception  of  the  final  state- 
ment of  the  chief  message,  any  or  all  of  the  other 
steps  suggested  may  be  omitted  in  concluding  a 
given  address.  I  should  not  like  the  reader  to 
accuse  me  of  advocating  an  emotional  appeal  in 
concluding  an  expository  speech  on  Coal  Tar 
Products,  or  of  recommending  an  elaborate  resume 
at  the  close  of  a  pleasant  after-dinner  talk.  I 
think  I  may  safely  rest  my  case,  however,  with 


82     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

the  statement  that  the  particular  combination 
and  adaptation  of  concluding  factors  must  be 
determined  by  the  nature  of  the  subject,  the  au- 
dience addressed,  and  the  particular  aim  of  the 
speaker. 


CHAPTER  VII 

PREPARATION  FOR  A  SPEECH 
A.  General  Preparation 

With  a  fair  understanding  of  aims  and  methods 
in  speech-making,  we  are  in  a  position  to  consider 
the  actual  preparation  for  an  address.  As  may- 
have  been  inferred  from  the  preceding  chapters, 
the  foundation  of  good  speaking  rests  upon  a 
person's  sum  total  of  knowledge  and  experience. 
His  acquaintance  with  art,  politics,  history,  geog- 
raphy, sociology,  commerce,  music,  literature, 
industry,  as  well  as  his  experience  with  men  and 
affairs  are  a  part  of  the  speaker's  stock  in  trade. 
At  any  time  they  may  afford  an  apt  illustration, 
or  even  constitute  the  fundamental  structure  of 
his  entire  address.  The  greater  his  fund  of  knowl- 
edge, however  acquired,  the  more  material  he 
has  to  bring  to  bear  upon  any  given  subject.  It 
is  supposed  by  some  that  only  those  with  an 
academic  education  are  capable  of  making  good 
speeches.  True  it  is  that  at  least  a  practical 
knowledge  of  grammar  and  rhetoric  is  usually 
requisite.      Moreover,    the    academically    trained 

83 


84    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

person  is  likely  to  be  more  familiar  with  the  literary- 
graces  of  composition.  But  in  general,  intelli- 
gence, broad  information  and  experience  are  the 
things  which  form  the  basis  of  speech-making; 
and  of  these  the  schools  and  colleges  certainly 
have  no  monopoly.  A  well-stored  mind,  then, 
should  be  the  primary  aim  of  every  serious  stu- 
dent of  speaking.  And  with  the  ample  facilities 
offered  to-day  in  schools,  lectures,  newspapers, 
magazines,  and  public  libraries  no  one  should  find 
difficulty  in  obtaining  such  a  foundation. 

B.  Specific  Preparation 

Whatever  the  amount  of  general  information  a 
person  may  possess,  there  are  certain  steps  which 
he  must  take  in  preparation  for  a  public  address. 
If  he  is  to  talk  on  a  subject  about  which  he  is 
already  well-informed,  the  preliminary  work  is 
reduced,  essentially,  to  selecting  and  arranging 
his  material.  But  in  comparatively  few  cases  is 
the  average  man  sufficiently  versed  in  his  subject 
to  forego  the  first  step  in  preparation  for  a  speech — 
investigation. 

I.  Investigation 

Investigation  may  be  divided  into  two  classes: 
direct  and  indirect.  The  first  consists  of  a  per- 
sonal examination  of  the  matter  to  be  discussed. 


Preparation  for  a  Speech  85 

An  engineer  who  Inspects  a  building  upon  which 
he  is  to  report,  or  an  artist  who  visits  a  picture 
gallery  about  which  he  is  to  lecture  uses  the  direct 
method.  Whenever  the  conditions  warrant,  such 
an  investigation  is  clearly  most  advantageous. 
But  In  order  to  make  profitable  observations  the 
Investigator  must  be  fairly  familiar  with  the  gen- 
eral subject  under  examination.  A  man  must 
know  considerable  about  bridges,  for  example,  if 
he  Is  to  report  upon  a  personal  investigation  of  a 
particular  structure.  Moreover,  In  the  great  ma- 
jority of  cases,  the  speaker  is  obliged,  on  account 
of  the  physical  impossibility  of  direct  investiga- 
tion, to  gather  his  material  from  secondary  sources; 
that  is,  to  use  the  indirect  method. 

a.  Making  a  Bibliography 

The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  locate  the  sources  of 
information  on  the  subject  under  consideration. 
No  time  should  be  lost  In  desultory  wandering 
through  library  stacks,  or  in  random  leafing  over 
of  magazine  pages.  For  books  on  any  subject 
the  card-indexes  of  libraries  should  be  consulted. 
The  speaker  should  also  acquaint  himself  with 
such  general  bibliographical  works  as  Sonnen- 
schein's  "The  Best  Books,"  and  Kroegcr's  "Guide 
to  the  Use  of  Reference  Books."  Frequently  the 
matter  under  investigation   appears   under  titles 


86     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

somewhat  diflferent  from  the  key-word  of  the 
specific  topic.  If,  for  Instance,  the  topic  is,  "The 
Development  of  Aeronautics,"  the  investigator 
win  do  well  to  look  through  the  card-Indexes  and 
general  bibliographies  for  works  on  aerial  naviga- 
tion, flying-machines,  balloons,  dirigibles,  aero- 
planes, hydro-aeroplanes,  monoplanes,  biplanes, 
Zeppelin,  Wright  brothers,  etc.  Whatever  the 
subject  may  be,  the  bibliography  should  Include, 
for  purposes  of  rapid  scanning  at  least,  all  titles 
found  which  relate  closely  to  the  subject  of  dis- 
course. Later,  the  investigator  may  enlarge  his 
list  of  books  by  taking  advantage  of  cross-refer- 
ences, I.  e.,  the  foot-note  citation  of  sources  by 
the  various  authors  consulted.  The  reader  should 
also  take  note  of  any  bibliographical  lists  which 
may  appear  in  the  books  he  Is  examining.  If  the 
number  of  references  becomes  formidably  large, 
it  is  well  to  remember  that  an  ample  collection  of 
sources  is  more  likely  to  afford  just  the  material 
needed  by  the  speaker  than  Is  a  meager  one.  And 
it  Is  a  simple  matter  to  select  only  the  most 
promising  items  for  careful  examination  should 
time  be  limited. 

For  references  to  periodical  literature,  the  in- 
vestigator should  consult  "The  Readers'  Guide  to 
Periodical  Literature,"  and  "The  Supplement  to 
the  Readers'  Guide."  These  indexes,  which  are 
to  be  found  in  most  of  the  up-to-date  libraries, 


Preparation  for  a  Speech  87 

direct  the  reader  to  all  the  Important  articles  which 
appear  in  the  current  magazines.  Each  month 
the  indexes  list  under  alphabetically  arranged 
headings  the  titles  of  the  articles  and  the  specific 
references  to  the  publications  containing  them. 
At  regular  intervals  the  references  are  recumulated 
for  one  year  and  ten  year  periods.  As  in  examin- 
ing card-indexes,  the  reader  should  look  up  all 
headings  closely  related  to  the  specific  topic  of 
research. 

Besides  the  references  obtained  from  card- 
indexes,  general  bibliographies,  and  guides  to 
periodical  literature,  there  are  a  number  of  stand- 
ard publications  which  constitute  valuable  sources 
of  information  for  a  wide  variety  of  subjects. 
Among  the  more  important  and  easily  accessible 
of  these  are:  (i)  such  compilations  as  "The  World 
Almanac,"  "The  Statesman's  Year  Book,"  "The 
Century  Book  of  Facts,"  and  "Information"; 
(2)  such  reports  as  "The  Record  of  the  Proceed- 
ings of  the  House  of  Representatives,"  "The 
Report  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion," and  reports  of  various  commissions  on 
labor,  wage-investigation,  immigration,  etc.;  (3) 
encyclopaedias,  such  as  "The  Encyclopaedia  Brl- 
tannlca,"  "The  New  International  Encyclopaedia," 
"The  Dictionary  of  National  Biography,"  (Eng- 
lish), and  "The  American  Dictionary  of  National 
Biography";  (4)  trade-organs  and  special  publica- 


88     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

tions,  such  as  "Printers'  Ink"  (advertising  organ), 
''The  Publishers'  Weekly,"  "The  Scientific  Amer- 
ican" (science  and  engineering),  "The  Dry  Goods 
Economist,"  "Motor"  (automobiles  and  motor- 
boats), ^  "The  Library  Journal,"  and  "The  Busi- 
ness Digest." 

Finally,  It  is  to  be  noted  that  many  public 
libraries  are  continually  making  bibliographies 
on  various  topics,  and  are  always  glad  to  be  of 
service  to  the  earnest  investigator. 

b.  Reading  and  Note-Taking 

The  second  step  In  investigation,  or  one  which 
may  be  taken  as  the  bibliography  is  being  com- 
piled, is  reading  and  note-taking.  Most  people 
have  Ideas  about  a  great  many  subjects,  but  In 
many  Instances  these  ideas  are  too  vague  for 
effective  public  expression.  And  what  is  more 
important,  they  are  frequently  unconvincing  be- 
cause they  are  inadequately  supported  by  facts. 
Reading  and  note-taking  should,  therefore,  aim 
to  accomplish  three  things:  to  clarify  and  define 
one's  own  ideas,  to  get  more  ideas  about  the  topic 
In  question,  and  to  collect  material  to  support  and 
elaborate  these  Ideas. 

The  guiding  principles  in  reading  and  note- 
taking  should  be  economy  of  time  and  effort, 
combined  with  thoroughness.  Even  a  moderate 
sized  bibliography  affords  a  large  mass  of  material 


Preparation  for  a  Speech  89 

of  varying  worth.  Nevertheless,  if  time  permits, 
the  investigator  ought  to  glance  at  each  item 
noted  in  his  Hst,  taking  advantage  of  tables  of 
contents  and  indexes  wherever  possible.  By  this 
rapid  view  some  items  may  be  discarded  as  value- 
less, and  the  most  promising  volumes  and  articles 
selected  for  careful  examination  and  note-taking. 
People  differ  somewhat  in  their  methods  of 
collecting  data,  but  the  essentials  for  carrying  out 
the  principles  stated  above  are  comprised  in  the 
following  plan.  In  reading  the  first  article  or 
volume  on  a  given  subject,  the  investigator  will 
note  certain  outstanding  Ideas,  salient  points. 
The  subject  of  each  of  these  points  should  be  writ- 
ten on  a  separate  card  or  sheet,  which  will  serve 
as  a  place  for  all  the  material  bearing  on  this  par- 
ticular point  in  all  items  subsequently  examined. 
Suppose,  for  example,  a  person  is  preparing  a 
talk  on  "The  Plays  of  Henrik  Ibsen."  The  first 
article  read  emphasizes,  let  us  say,  Ibsen's  revolu- 
tionary staging,  his  limited  casts,  and  his  unthcat- 
rlcal  dialogue.  This  furnishes  the  reader  with 
three  cards,  headed  respectively,  "Staging," 
"Casts,"  and  "Dialogue,"  and  each  containing 
the  most  important  observations  of  the  writer 
on  these  points.  The  next  article  may  dwell  on 
Ibsen's  staging,  social  theories,  and  unhappy  end- 
ings. The  observations  on  staging  will  be  noted 
on   the   "staging"   card,   and   new  cards   will   be 


90    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

made  for  the  two  new  points.  By  following  out 
this  system  with  each  item  of  his  bibliography, 
the  investigator  will  have,  at  the  completion  of 
his  reading,  a  card  or  group  of  cards  for  each  im- 
portant point.  Every  card  or  group  will  contain 
the  selected  ideas  or  facts  contributed  by  the 
various  sources  consulted. 

Reading  and  note-taking  calls  for  discriminating 
judgment,  which  will  increase  with  practice.  Some 
people  still  accept  as  valid  anything  which  ap- 
pears in  print,  but  the  discriminating  investiga- 
tor will  take  into  consideration  each  writer's 
opportunities  and  capacity  for  securing  and  pre- 
senting reliable  information.  Moreover,  he  will 
view  with  particular  caution  sources  which  are 
likely  to  be  influenced  by  prejudices  or  personal 
interests.  Judgment  must  be  used  also  in  the 
selection  of  material  from  the  mass  and  in  deter- 
mining what  to  read  and  what  to  pass  over. 
Over-elaborate  notes  are,  perhaps,  preferable  to 
scanty  ones,  but  the  beginner  should  beware  of  a 
common  tendency  to  waste  time  in  reading  ir- 
relevant matter,  and  compiling  a  cumbersome 
mass  of  notes  which  a  little  more  thoughtfulness 
would  avoid.  The  most  significant  passages  may 
be  taken  verbatim;  but  most  of  the  desired  ma- 
terial may  preferably  be  reduced  to  brief  summary 
statements.  In  all  cases,  citations  should  be  ac- 
companied by  a  careful  reference  to  volume  and 


Preparation  for  a  Speech  91 

page  of  the  source,  for  possible  subsequent  use. 
Furthermore,  it  is  important  that  notes  be  written 
on  only  one  side  of  the  sheet  or  card  in  order  that 
any  group  of  material  may  be  placed  in  its  en- 
tirety under  the  eye  when  the  time  comes  for 
making  the  outline. 

c.  Adjusting  the  Notes 

With  his  reading  and  note-taking  completed, 
the  speaker  arrives  at  the  third  step  in  his  investi- 
gation, the  adjustment  of  the  notes.  If  he  has 
followed  the  plan  advocated  in  the  preceding 
section,  this  process  is  greatly  simplified.  For, 
instead  of  having  a  large  mass  of  unsorted  ma- 
terial, his  points  are  clearly  defined,  and  the 
supporting  data  all  ready  classified.  It  remains 
to  review  carefully  the  various  card  headings  for 
the  purposes  of  separating  into  parts  any  headings 
which  seem  to  comprise  two  or  more  distinct 
phases,  and  of  uniting  any  headings  which  may 
be  substantially  identical.  This  review  should 
provide  also  for  the  shifting  of  data  in  case  cer- 
tain notes  can  be  used  to  better  advantage  under 
headings  other  than  those  to  which  they  were 
originally  assigned. 

II.  Outlining 

As  the  speaker  has  proceeded  in  his  work  of  in- 
vestigation  he  has,   naturally,   been   turning  the 


92     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

subject  over  in  his  mind,  revising  or  confirming 
previous  ideas  about  it,  adding  new  thoughts, 
and  strengthening  his  grasp  of  the  whole  m.atter. 
But  now,  with  the  completed  notes  before  him, 
he  should  carefully  study  his  material  with  a 
view  to  making  an  outline  of  his  speech.  Let  us 
suppose  that  he  has  been  investigating  the  sub- 
ject of  industrial  arbitration,  and  that  his  cards, 
or  card  groups,  contain  data  on  fourteen  points,  as 
follows:  Capital  and  Labor  Opposed,  Strikes,  Past 
Accomplishment  of  Industrial  Arbitration,  Diffi- 
culties of  Industrial  Arbitration,  Boycotts,  Con- 
stitutionality of  Industrial  Arbitration,  Benefits 
to  be  Derived  from  Industrial  Arbitration,  For- 
eign Experience  with  Industrial  Arbitration,  Lock- 
outs, Violence,  Public  Attitude  toward  Industrial 
Arbitration,  Non-interference  in  Industrial  Dis- 
putes, Compulsory  Federal  Arbitration  Laws, 
State  Arbitration  Laws. 

We  are  now  ready  to  build  the  framework  of 
the  speech,  and  our  first  efl^ort  should  be  to  deter- 
mine from  the  material  before  us  just  what  the 
central  theme  is  to  be.  What  is  the  chief  purpose 
of  speaking.^  What  main  conviction  do  we  want 
to  impress  upon  the  audience.^  Since  the  speaker 
must  keep  the  central  theme  uppermost  in  his 
mind  throughout  the  address,  it  is  of  great  im- 
portance to  establish  it  as  the  core  of  the  outline, 
around  which  the  leading  points  will  be  assembled. 


Preparation  for  a  Speech  93 

To  continue  with  the  illustration  already  given, 
let  us  suppose  that  the  speaker  has  concluded 
from  a  careful  review  of  the  notes  that  the  pre- 
ponderance of  evidence  points  toward  the  need  of 
a  compulsory  Federal  arbitration  law  for  the 
settlement  of  industrial  disputes.  To  show  such 
a  need,  then,  is  the  main  purpose  of  his  address, 
and  his  rough  outline  stands  as  follows: 

Industrial  Arbitration 

A.  Introduction. 

B.  Capital  and  Labor  not  Opposed. 

C.  Strikes. 

D.  Past  Accomplishment  of  Industrial  Arbitra- 

tion. 

E.  Difficulties  of  Industrial  Arbitration. 

F.  Boycotts. 

G.  Constitutionality  of  Industrial  Arbitration. 
H.  Benefits  to  be  Derived  from  Industrial  Ar- 
bitration. 

I.  Foreign  Experience  with  Industrial  Arbitra- 
tion. 
J.  Lockouts. 
K.  Violence. 

L.  Public  Attitude  toward  Industrial  Arbitration. 
M.  Non-interference  in  Industrial  Disputes. 
N.  Compulsory  Federal  Arbitration  Laws. 
O.  State  Arbitration  Laws. 
P.  Conclusion. 


94     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

In  this  typical  rough  outHne  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  there  is  no  indication  of  proper  co-ordination, 
subordination,  arrangement,  or  detailed  elabora- 
tion. Nevertheless,  such  a  rough  assembling  of 
points  is  an  invaluable  factor  in  the  organization 
of  speech  material.  Whether  the  rough  outline 
follows  an  elaborate  investigation,  or  is  jotted 
down  in  the  event  of  speaking  on  short  notice, 
it  gives  a  tangible  basis  for  an  organized  plan. 
The  next  step  is  to  co-ordinate,  subordinate,  and 
arrange  in  such  order  as  will  most  effectively  drive 
home  the  central  theme.  Mindful  of  the  material 
at  our  disposal,  and  of  the  aims  and  methods  set 
forth  in  the  earlier  chapters,  we  work  out  for  our 
illustrative  topic  this  second  draft: 

Industrial  Arbitration 

Purpose:  to  show  the  need  of  a  compulsory 
Federal  arbitration  law. 

Introduction 
Capital  and  Labor  not  Inherently  Opposed. 

Body 

A.  Past  Experiences  in  Industrial  Arbitration. 
I.  In  Foreign  Countries. 
II.  In  America. 

a.  Voluntary  Efforts. 

b.  State  Laws. 


Preparation  for  a  Speech  95 

B.  The  Difficulties  of  Industrial  Arbitration. 

I.  The  Question  of  Constitutionalit}'. 
II.  An  Indifferent  Public  Opinion. 

C.  The  Working  of  the  Non-interference  Policy. 

I.  Strikes. 

a.  Violence. 

b.  Intimidation. 
II.  Boycotts. 

III.  Lockouts. 

D.  Solution    of    Problems     in    a    Compulsory 

Federal  Arbitration  Law. 

Co7iclns{on 

Benefits  to  be  Derived  from  Such  a  Law 

From  this  second  draft  a  final  revision  may  be 
made  which  will  elaborate  in  greater  detail  the 
various  steps  by  which  each  point  is  to  be  de- 
veloped. But  the  practical  speaker  will  rarely 
take  the  trouble  to  do  this,  and  if  he  has  a  thor- 
ough grasp  of  his  material,  it  is  not  at  all  neces- 
sary. He  has  a  definite  purpose  before  him  in  the 
main  theme,  and  has  mapped  out  the  chief  plan 
of  procedure  by  which  he  is  to  try  to  lead  his  au- 
dience to  understand  and  concur  with  his  views. 
The  beginner  may  possibly  find  it  advantageous, 
for  the  first  three  or  four  speeches,  to  elaborate 
his  outline  in  greater  detail.  While  thinking  his 
address  through,  or  talking  it  over  aloud  in  private, 


96    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

it  is  a  simple  matter  to  set  down  on  paper  the 
minor  features  of  the  development.  But  before  he 
faces  his  audience  he  should  focus  his  attention 
on  some  such  general  plan  as  that  presented  above. 
The  extempore  speaker  grows  In  power,  not  by 
leaning  upon  a  memory  burdened  with  cumber- 
some outlines,  but  by  cultivating  the  ability  to 
develop  his  themes  from  a  vital  grasp  of  broad 
essentials. 

C.  Summary 

We  have  noted  In  this  chapter  that  a  person's 
general  preparation  for  speech-making  consists 
in  acquiring  a  fund  of  knowledge  and  experience. 
The  more  extensive  and  clearly  defined  this  Is, 
the  greater  are  his  possibilities  for  able  speaking. 
Specific  preparation  comprises  two  factors:  in- 
vestigation and  outlining.  Investigation  may  be 
direct  when  the  conditions  warrant  personal  ex- 
amination of  the  subject  of  discussion;  or  indirect, 
which  Is  much  more  common,  when  the  speaker 
must  secure  his  material  from  secondary  sources. 
The  first  step  In  secondary  investigation  Is  to 
compile  a  bibliography  from  all  available  sources, 
which  include  library  card-indexes,  general  biblio- 
graphical works,  special  bibliographies,  cross-refer- 
ences, and  Indexes  to  periodical  literature.  For 
certain  kinds  of  topics,  the  bibliography  should 
include  also  the  standard  periodical  compilations 


Preparation  for  a  Speech  97 

of  facts,  reports,  encyclopaedias,  and  publications 
deV'Oted  to  special  interests.  In  addition,  biblio- 
graphical assistance  may  be  obtained,  when  needed, 
from  public  libraries.  The  second  step  in  investi- 
gation is  reading  and  note-taking,  for  the  pur- 
poses of  clarifying  the  speaker's  ideas  about  his 
subject,  adding  other  ideas,  and  securing  material 
for  their  elaboration  and  support.  The  method 
employed  in  reading  and  note-taking  should  ob- 
serve economy  of  time  and  effort,  combined  with 
thoroughness.  The  investigator  should  take  every 
advantage  of  tables  of  contents,  indexes,  and 
topical  headings,  both  for  the  rapid  locating  of 
pertinent  material,  and  the  avoidance  of  that 
which  is  irrelevant  or  comparatively  unimportant. 
In  collecting  data  he  is  cautioned  against  care- 
lessly encumbering  his  notes  with  useless  matter. 
A  further  saving  of  time  and  effort  is  effected  by 
taking  notes  in  some  such  systematic  manner  as 
was  suggested  in  this  chapter.  The  third  step  in 
investigation  is  the  adjustment  of  the  notes  to 
the  end  that  each  card,  or  card  group,  presents 
a  definite,  unified  point,  and  that  all  material 
appears  under  its  proper  heading. 

The  second  factor  of  preparation  is  outlining 
the  speech.  The  rough  draft  consists  of  a  list  of 
all  the  points  bearing  upon  the  topic  which  the 
speaker  can  assemble.  Studying  his  material  he 
then    decides    upon    the    central    theme   or   main 


98     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

purpose  of  his  address.  It  then  remains  to  co-ordi- 
nate, subordinate,  arrange,  and  fill  in  such  de- 
tails of  elaboration  as  may  seem  desirable.  The 
resultant  draft  completes  the  more  substantial 
part  of  the  preparation,  and  we  may  now  turn  to 
matters  more  especially  concerned  with  form  of 
expression. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

EFFECTIVE  STYLE  IN  SPEECH  COMPOSITION 

Practically  every  writer  on  public  address,  in- 
cluding not  only  the  ancients  like  Cicero  and 
Quintillian  but  also  the  most  modern  writers  like 
Robinson  and  Winans,  urge  the  necessity  of  both 
intellectual  and  emotional  appeal.  The  various 
writers  may  differ  as  to  the  relative  importance  of 
conviction  and  persuasion,  but  they  all  agree  that 
an  address  which  is  either  cold,  dry  and  me- 
chanical, or  wholly  emotional  is  usually  ineffective. 
It  is  indeed  hardly  to  be  questioned  that  a  speech 
which  makes  no  attempt  to  awaken  the  sym- 
pathies must  ordinarily  leave  an  audience  Indif- 
ferent; but  in  speaking  to-day  before  the  average 
intelligent  audience  a  lack  of  real  convincing 
substance  Is,  undoubtedly,  even  a  greater  short- 
coming. For  this  reason  special  attention  has 
been  given  In  the  foregoing  chapters  to  the  basic 
matters  which  make  for  understanding  and  con- 
viction on  the  part  of  the  audience.  At  the  same 
time,  the  discussion  of  aims  and  methods  has  In- 
corporated much  pertaining  to  the  persuasive 
element  because  conviction  and  persuasion  must 


lOO     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

move  hand  in  hand.  The  idea  that  the  body  of 
a  speech  should  contain  only  convincing  matter, 
and  that  the  conclusion  should  embody  the  entire 
persuasive  factor  disregards  human  nature.  We 
are  not  effectively  convinced  unless  persuaded; 
nor  are  we  truly  persuaded  unless  convinced. 
Moreover,  the  notion  that  conviction  lies  wholly 
in  the  substance  of  a  speech,  and  persuasion  en- 
tirely in  the  form  of  expression  is  erroneous.  So, 
in  dealing  with  style,  wherein  form  is  emphasized 
more  than  substance,  we  are  concerned  not  only 
with  persuasion  but  also  with  conviction. 

It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  hear  a  speaker 
who  has  an  abundance  of  excellent  speech-material, 
but  who  fails  to  make  an  effective  address  because 
he  presents  it  poorly.  Cicero  went  so  far  as  to 
observe,  "It  is  a  great  matter  to  know  what  to 
say  and  in  what  order  to  say  it,  but  to  know  how 
to  say  it  is  a  greater  matter  still."  Perhaps  the 
relative  importance  of  form  and  substance  has 
altered  since  the  days  of  the  great  Roman,  but  it 
is  still  necessary  to  cultivate  a  style  of  speaking 
which  shall  present  our  material  effectively  both 
to  the  minds  and  the  sympathies  of  our  auditors. 
Each  individual  will,  naturally,  possess  certain 
personal  characteristics  of  expression,  and  as  far 
as  these  meet  with  good  results  they  are  to  be 
developed.  One  man,  like  Grady,  has  an  unusual 
descriptive    faculty;    another,    like    Macaulay,    is 


Effective  Style  In  Speech  Composition     loi 

especially  effective  in  the  use  of  balanced  struc- 
ture; a  third,  like  Roosevelt,  possesses  a  marked 
capacity  for  forceful  phrasing.  But  the  student 
of  speaking  must  first  acquire  the  basic  qualities 
of  a  good  style  of  expression,  irrespective  of  any 
individual  traits.  The  essentials  of  such  a  style 
are  unity,  coherence,  clearness  and  force.  These 
old  friends  of  our  rhetoric  days  are  "true"  if  not 
always  "tried,"  in  the  ^ense  of  being  employed. 
But  they  are  neglected  at  the  expense  of  the 
speaker;  for  in  whatever  respects  the  style  of 
address  may  have  changed  throughout  its  history, 
practical  speaking  has  never  profitably  parted 
company  with  unity,  coherence,  clearness  and 
force  because  the  essential  workings  of  the  human 
mind  have  not  changed.  In  order  to  think  def- 
initely and  conclusively,  a  person  must  concen- 
trate upon  one  thing,  and  proceed  from  beginning 
to  end  with  clearness  and  logical  sequence — a 
process  which  in  itself  is  forceful. 

A.  Unity 

In  its  uncontrolled  activities  the  mind  does, 
indeed,  make  curious  jumps  at  times — from  Cana- 
dian reciprocity  to  string  beans  to  bishops;  thence 
to  the  thought  of  an  uncomfortable  collar  only  to 
alight,  perhaps,  upon  a  contemplation  of  Wagner's 
immortal  Ring  Cycle.  But  while  such  a  disunified 
series  is  in  some  respects  interesting,  it  has  the 


I02     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

vital  defect  that  it  does  not  get  us  anywhere  with 
anything.  It  is  really  surprising  that  speakers 
should  so  often  be  guilty  of  a  lack  of  unity  which 
differs  from  the  illustration  just  cited  in  degree 
rather  than  in  kind. 

The  man  who  speaks  in  public  could  hardly 
make  a  more  useful  resolution  than  never  to  force 
an  audience  to  "wonder  what  he  is  driving  at." 
Not  only  should  there  be  no  straying  from  the 
subject  of  the  discourse  as  a  whole,  but  the  dis- 
cussion of  each  phase  of  the  topic  must  constantly 
and  obviously  bear  upon  the  specific  point  in 
question,  avoiding  confusion  with  other  aspects 
of  the  subject.  If  one  is  talking  on  "Canadian 
Reciprocity,"  for  example,  every  section  of  the 
development  should  lend  itself  to  a  summary  state- 
ment which  clearly  contributes  something  to  the 
main  theme  respecting  Canadian  reciprocity. 
Furthermore,  the  discussion  of  any  particular 
phase,  such  as  the  effect  upon  the  farmers  of  the 
United  States,  should  be  strictly  confined  to  that 
point,  without  encroaching  upon  any  other  phase, 
such  as  the  effect  upon  Canadian  manufacturers. 
It  is  quite  likely  that  this  observance  of  unity 
will  shorten  many  a  speech  by  eliminating  inconse- 
quential padding,  side-line  excursions  into  allied 
fields,  and  confusing  repetitions  incident  to  the 
ill-advised  use  of  the  same  material  under  two  or 
more  points.     However,  a  reduction  of  the  quan- 


Effective  Style  in  Speech  Composition     103 

tity  of  the  average  speech,  accompanied  by  a 
corresponding  improvement  in  quahty,  would  be 
one,  or  rather  two,  of  the  most  felicitous  things 
that  could  happen  to  this  much  abused  art. 

The  following  excerpt  from  Professor  G.  Lowes 
Dickinson's  discussion  of  the  means  by  which  a 
League  of  Peace  might  effect  its  purposes  oifcrs  a 
typical  example  of  unity.  Particular  attention  is 
directed  to  the  way  in  which  the  opening  and 
closing  sentences  definitely  introduce  and  ter- 
minate the  idea  of  the  passage.  Note  also  how 
the  substance  of  the  entire  matter  can  be  summed 
up  in  a  single  statement.  After  the  observation 
that  the  combined  military  force  of  the  League 
might  be  employed  against  an  offending  member, 
Professor  Dickinson  says: 

"Military  force,  however,  is  not  the  only  weapon 
the  powers  might  employ  in  such  a  case;  economic 
pressure  might  sometimes  be  effective.  Suppose, 
for  example,  that  the  United  States  entered  into 
such  a  league,  but  that  she  did  not  choose,  as  she 
wisely  might  not  choose,  to  become  a  great  mili- 
tary or  naval  power.  In  the  event  of  a  crisis 
arising,  such  as  we  suppose,  she  could,  neverthe- 
less, exercise  a  very  great  pressure  if  she  simply 
instituted  a  financial  and  commercial  boycott 
against  the  offender.  Imagine,  for  instance,  that 
at  this  moment  all  the  foreign  trade  of  this  coun- 
try were  cut  off  by  a  general  boycott.    We  should 


I04    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

be  harder  hit  than  we  can  be  hy  military  force. 
We  simply  could  not  carry  on  the  war.  And 
though,  no  doubt,  we  are  more  vulnerable  in  this 
respect  than  other  countries,  yet  such  economic 
pressure,  if  it  were  really  feared,  would  be  a  potent 
factor  in  determining  the  policy  of  any  country. 
It  is  true  that  no  nation  could  apply  such  a  boy- 
cott without  injuring  itself.  But  then  the  object 
is  to  prevent  that  greatest  of  all  injuries,  material 
and  moral,  which  we  call  war.  We  can  then  im- 
agine the  states  included  in  our  league  agreeing  that 
any  offender  who  made  war  on  a  member  of  the 
League,  contrary  to  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  would 
immediately  have  to  face  either  the  economic 
boycott  or  the  armed  forces,  or  both,  of  the  other 
members.  And  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  think 
that  in  most  cases  that  would  secure  the  observ- 
ance of  the  treaty." 

B.  Coherence 

I.  Coherent  Thought 

As  to  coherence,  there  are  two  considerations: 
thoughts  must  be  presented  in  reasonable  se- 
quence; and  the  verbal  expression  must  indi- 
cate their  relationships.  In  discussing  unity  it 
was  observed  that  the  uncontrolled  mind  often 
passes  rapidly  through  a  disunified  series  of  sub- 
jects.    Similarly,  with  respect  to  coherence,  the 


Effective  Style  in  Speech  Composition     105 

casual,  glancing  attitude  of  mind  is  apt  to  view 
any  one  subject  in  a  chaotic  manner.  For  ex- 
ample, what  an  inconsequential  series  of  ideas  are 
suggested  to  the  average  man  when  the  subject, 
"Free-Trade,"  is  mentioned!  Probably  he  thinks 
of  prices  of  food  and  clothing,  foreign  trade,  Eng- 
land, the  effect  on  farmers,  trade-rivalry,  domestic 
production,  cost  of  living,  encouragement  of  home 
industry,  effect  on  manufacturers,  the  steel  indus- 
try, the  reduced  price  of  Ingersoll  watches  in 
Europe,  etc.  All  these  thoughts  are  in  varying 
degrees  pertinent  to  the  subject,  but  no  definite- 
ness  of  understanding,  no  conclusions  regarding 
the  merits  or  disadvantages  of  free-trade  can  be 
reached  by  developing  the  foregoing  incoherent 
jumble.  The  desired  effect  requires  an  orderly 
progression  of  ideas,  a  growth  or  forward  motion 
by  which  not  only  each  phase  prepares  for  or  leads 
into  the  next,  but  also  in  which  the  thoughts  con- 
stituting the  elaboration  of  each  subdivision  shall 
develop  in  the  same  logical  way. 

II.  Coherent  Expression 

With  coherence  of  thought  as  a  basis,  the 
speaker  is  enabled  to  make  his  expression  cohere, 
i.  e.,  link  together.  Even  in  writing,  one  should 
use  all  possible  means  to  make  sentence  relation- 
ships explicit.  Much  more  necessary  is  this  ex- 
plicit indication  of  relationships  in  speech,  where 


io6    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

no  opportunity  for  deliberation  is  afforded  to 
those  who  are  following  the  thought.  Fortunately, 
the  secret  of  coherent  expression  is  easily  grasped, 
providing  always  that  the  thoughts  follow  one 
another  in  logical  sequence.  To  a  great  extent 
this  secret  inheres  in  the  use  of  these  connectives: 
(i)  the  use  of  a  word  employed  in  the  preceding 
sentence,  as  is  exemplified  by  the  word  "secret" 
in  the  beginning  of  this  sentence;  (2)  a  synonym 
or  pronoun  for  a  word  used  in  the  preceding  sen^ 
tence;  (3)  a  word  v/hich  sums  up  an  idea  expressed 
in  the  preceding  sentence;  (4)  a  conjunction 
which  shows  an  addition  or  opposition  to  the 
thought  in  the  preceding  sentence,  such  as  "and," 
"moreover,"  "but,"  "however,"  "nevertheless"; 
(5)  a  phrase,  clause,  or  participial  expression 
which  connects  a  sentence  with  the  preceding  one 
by  indicating  a  relationship  of  time,  place,  degree, 
manner,  or  circumstance,  such  as,  "at  this  time," 
"on  the  contrary,"  "under  such  circumstances," 
"while  this  was  happening,"  "what  that  In- 
volved," "when  this  was  accomplished,"  "dis- 
regarding the  opportunity,"  "disgusted  with  such 
an  arrangement,"  etc.;  (6)  an  adverb  of  time,  place, 
degree,  manner,  or  circumstance;  (7)  a  transi- 
tional sentence,  which  alms  to  summarize  broadly 
a  preceding  section  and  to  introduce  a  new  phase. 
Of  course,  it  must  not  be  understood  that  such 
connectives    are   serviceable    for   every    sentence; 


Effective  Style  in  Speech  Composition     107 

even  if  they  were,  their  invariable  use  would  tend 
to  produce  a  rather  unpleasing,  academic  effect. 
But  whenever  they  do  serve  to  express  a  relation- 
ship easily  and  accurately,  they  may  be  employed 
to  good  advantage.  In  the  subjoined  passage 
from  one  of  John  Bright's  speeches,  notice  how 
the  connectives  tie  the  thoughts  together  into  a 
flowing,  readily-followed  whole.  The  speaker 
has  just  stated  that  the  constant  shortage  of 
cotton  is  due  to  the  insufficient  increase  of  labor 
in  the  Southern  States. 

"Now,  can  this  be  remedied  under  slavery.'' 
I  will  show  how  it  cannot.  And  first  of  all,  every- 
body who  is  acquainted  with  American  affairs 
knows  that  there  is  not  very  much  migration  of 
the  population  of  the  northern  states  into  the 
southern  states  to  engage  in  the  ordinary  occupa- 
tions of  agricultural  labor.  Labor  is  not  honorable 
and  is  not  honored  in  the  South,  and  therefore 
free  laborers  are  not  likely  to  go  south.  Again, 
of  all  the  emigration  from  this  country  [Eng- 
land] ...  a  mere  trifle  went  south  and  settled 
there  to  pursue  the  occupation  of  agriculture; 
they  remained  in  the  North,  where  labor  is  honor- 
able and  honored. 

"Whence,  then,  could  the  planters  of  the  South 
receive  their  increase  in  labor?  Only  from  the 
slave-ship  and  the  coast  of  Africa.  But,  fortu- 
nately for  the  world,  the  United  States  govern- 


Io8     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

ment  has  never  yet  become  so  prostrate  under 
the  heel  of  the  slave-owner  as  to  consent  to  the 
reopening  of  the  slave-trade.  Therefore,  the 
southern  planter  was  in  this  unfortunate  position: 
he  could  not  tempt,  perhaps  he  did  not  want, 
free  laborers  from  the  North;  he  could  not  tempt, 
perhaps  he  did  not  want,  free  laborers  from  Eu- 
rope; and  if  he  did  want,  he  was  not  permitted  to 
fetch  slave  labor  from  Africa.  Well,  that  being 
so,  we  arrived  at  this  conclusion — that  whilst  the 
cultivation  of  cotton  was  performed  hy  slave 
labor,  you  were  shut  up  for  your  hope  of  increased 
growth  to  the  small  increase  that  was  possible 
with  the  increase  of  two  and  one-half  per  cent  per 
annum  in  the  population  of  the  slaves,  about  one 
million  in  number  that  have  been  regularly  em- 
ployed in  the  cultivation  of  cotton.  Then,  if  the 
growth  was  thus  insufRcient, — and  I  as  one  con- 
nected with  the  trade  can  speak  very  clearly  upon 
that  point — I  ask  you  whether  the  production 
and  the  supply  were  not  necessarily  insecure  by 
reason  of  the  institution  of  slavery.^ 

"It  was  perilous  within  the  Union.  In  this 
country  we  made  one  mistake  in  our  forecast  of 
this  question:  we  did  not  believe  that  the  South 
would  commit  suicide;  we  thought  it  possible  that 
the  slaves  might  revolt.  They  might  revolt,  but 
their  subjugation  was  inevitable,  because  the 
whole  power  of  the  Union   was  pledged   to  the 


Effective  Style  in  Speech  Composition     109 

maintenance  of  order  in  every  part  of  its  domin- 
ions. 

"But  if  there  be  men  who  think  that  the  cotton 
trade  would  be  safer  if  the  South  were  an  inde- 
pendent state,  with  slavery  established  there  in 
permanence,  they  greatly  mistake;  because,  what- 
ever was  the  danger  of  revolt  in  the  southern 
states  whilst  the  Union  was  complete,  the  possi- 
bility of  revolt  and  the  possibility  of  success  would 
surely  be  greatly  increased  if  the  North  were 
separated  from  the  South,  and  the  negro  had  only 
his  southern  master,  and  not  the  northern  power, 
to  contend  against." 

C.  Clearness 

The  third  fundamental  of  a  good  style  of  speak- 
ing is  clearness.  It  is  not  enough  to  concentrate 
on  one  topic  and  to  proceed  coherently;  each 
thought  unit  must  be  clear.  That  clearness  of 
thought  is  essential  to  clearness  of  expression  has 
frequently  been  pointed  out.  But  it  is  a  truth 
which  cannot  be  over-emphasized.  If  we  wish  to 
convey  an  idea  to  others,  we  must  first  grasp  it 
without  a  suspicion  of  vagueness.  The  explana- 
tion of  most  of  the  vague,  self-contradictory,  or 
fatuous  discussions  which  one  so  frequently  hears 
lies  in  muddled  thinking  rather  than  in  poor 
speaking.  Any  uncertainty  as  to  the  significance 
of  a  fact,  the  aptness  of  an  illustration,  or  the 


no     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

relationship  of  thoughts  is  an  index  of  confusion, 
and  is  almost  sure  to  result  in  unclear  expression. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  clear  perception  of  such 
matters  conduces  to  clarity  of  expression.  It 
remains  then  only  to  present  one's  thoughts  with 
simplicity  and  directness. 

I.  Simplicity 

It  would  be  an  error,  of  course,  to  underestimate 
the  attention  which  these  two  qualities  require 
before  they  become  habitual  with  the  speaker. 
But  the  task  is  greatly  lightened  by  getting  the 
right  idea  from  the  start,  and  thus  escaping  the 
pitfalls  which  yawn  for  those  who  set  out  with  a 
false  sense  of  values.  An  ability  to  use  big  words 
and  high  sounding  phrases,  for  example,  is  some- 
times deliberately  and  unfortunately  cultivated. 
The  use  of  such  words  as  "ratiocination,"  "post- 
prandial," and  "ebullient,"  when  "thinking," 
"after-dinner,"  and  "lively,"  would  express  the 
ideas,  may  inspire  awe  in  the  "unskillful"  but 
"it  cannot  but  make  the  judicious  grieve."  Not 
that  the  principle  of  clearness  requires  the  avoid- 
ance of  all  large  or  unusual  words.  If  a  polysyl- 
labic word  of  Latin  origin,  like  "circumvallation," 
a  technical  term,  such  as  "electrolysis,"  or  even 
a  foreign  expression,  Hke  "denouement,"  or 
"Zeitgeist,"  is  requisite  to  express  the  speaker's 
exact  idea,  he  should  feel  free  to  employ  it — with 


Effective  Style  in  Speech  Composition     in 

sucli  explanation  as  may  be  necessary.  But  to 
seek  such  words,  or  to  strain  for  "elegance"  by 
turning  every  "big  fire"  into  a  "disastrous  con- 
flagration," every  "funny  reply"  into  a  "titillat- 
ing rejoinder"  is  a  great  mistake.  In  a  word,  the 
speaker  should  aim  to  use  the  simplest,  most  easily 
understood  language  consistent  with  adequate 
expression  of  his  thoughts.  And  that  simple 
language  is  ordinarily  adequate  to  convey  the 
beauty,  strength  and  emotion  of  even  the  most 
profound  thoughts  is  shown  in  such  a  speech  as 
Lincoln's  "Gettysburg  Address."  This  immortal 
utterance  so  finely  illustrates  how  simplicity  of 
expression  is  consistent  with  impressiveness  that 
I  venture  to  quote  it  entire. 

"Four  score  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers 
brought  forth  on  this  continent  a  new  nation,  con- 
ceived in  liberty,  and  dedicated  to  the  proposition 
that  all  men  are  created  equal. 

"Now  we  are  engaged  in  a  great  civil  war,  test- 
ing whether  that  nation,  or  any  nation  so  con- 
ceived and  so  dedicated,  can  long  endure.  We 
are  met  on  a  great  battle-field  of  that  war.  We 
have  come  to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field  as  a 
final  resting-place  for  those  who  here  gave  their 
lives  that  that  nation  might  live.  It  is  altogether 
fitting  and  proper  that  we  should  do  this. 

"But,  in  a  larger  sense,  we  cannot  dedicate — 
we    cannot    consecrate — we    cannot    hallow — this 


112    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

ground.  The  brave  men,  Hving  and  dead,  who 
struggled  here,  have  consecrated  it  far  beyond 
our  poor  power  to  add  or  to  detract.  The  world 
will  little  note  nor  long  remember  what  we  say- 
here,  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here. 
It  is  for  us,  the  living,  rather,  to  be  dedicated  here 
to  the  unfinished  work  which  they  who  fought 
here  have  thus  far  so  nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather 
for  us  to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  great  task  re- 
maining before  us — that  from  these  honored  dead 
we  take  increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for 
which  they  gave  their  last  full  measure  of  devo- 
tion; that  we  here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead 
shall  not  have  died  in  vain;  that  this  nation,  under 
God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom;  and  that 
government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the 
people,  shall  not  perish  from  the  earth." 

II.  Directness 

Closely  akin  to  simplicity  as  an  aid  to  clearness 
is  directness.  This  comprises  brevity  and  straight- 
forwardness of  construction.  It  means  the  avoid- 
ance of  intricate,  wordy,  clumsy  or  stilted  sen- 
tences. Such  sentences  call  to  mind  the  following 
specimen  from  Benjamin  Franklin's  proposal  to 
revise  the  Book  of  Job.  As  a  sample  of  improve- 
ment, he  advocated  that  the  sentence,  "Doth 
Job  fear  God  for  naught.^"  be  changed  to,  "Does 
your  majesty  imagine  that  Job's  good  conduct  is 


EiFective  Style  in  Speech  Composition     113 

the  effect  of  mere  personal  attachment  and  affec- 
tion?" With  all  his  proverbial  common-sense, 
the  renowned  Franklin  erred  here.  And  every 
speaker  errs  who  proceeds  on  the  theory  that  a 
statement  is  impressive  in  proportion  to  the 
number  of  words  which  it  contains,  or  to  the 
ponderous  and  involved  manner  in  which  it  is 
made.  If  an  idea  can  be  as  fully  expressed  in  five 
words  as  in  ten,  the  extra  five  are  usually  a  waste, 
and  frequently  a  hindrance  to  clearness.  A  wordy 
speaker  might  say,  for  example,  "A  collection  of 
the  most  famous  and  most  widely  known  and 
popular  essays  that  have  endeared  themselves  to 
lovers  of  literature  for  many  generations  will  be 
published  by  Smith  and  Company  for  all  those 
who  enjoy  reading."  With  a  terse  speaker  this 
would  become,  "A  collection  of  the  essays  most 
popular  with  many  generations  of  readers  will  be 
published  by  Smith  and  Company."  The  gain 
in  clearness,  and  force  as  well,  is  obvious. 

There  are  occasions,  of  course,  when  long  sen- 
tences are  necessary  to  express  the  speaker's 
thoughts.  In  such  cases  he  should  preserve  clear- 
ness by  direct,  straightforward  construction. 
For  this  purpose,  the  observance  of  two  simple 
rules  will  aid  greatly.  First,  the  order  of  subjcct- 
predicate-oBject  or  attribute  should  generally  be 
observed.  Exceptions  may  be  made  occasionally 
for  the  sake  of  coherence  or  variety.     Secondly, 


114    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

all  modifying  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  should 
be  kept  as  close  as  possible  to  the  words  modified. 
It  is  remarkable  how  frequently  sentences  are 
ambiguous,  misleading,  or  unfathomable  only  be- 
cause of  injudiciously  placed  modifiers.  Take, 
for  example,  the  following  typical  cases: 

I  neither  am  Republican  nor  Democrat. 

Both  the  platforms  of  the  rival  parties  are  un- 
satisfactory. 

He  was  asked  to  marry  the  defendant  repeat- 
edly. 

The  attorney  hurried  from  the  court-house, 
where  he  had  been  trying  a  tramp  in  an  auto- 
mobile. 

The  clipping  was  brought  from  an  address  which 
had  been  published  the  night  before  by  a 
messenger  boy. 

These  sentences  strike  one  as  absurd,  and  yet 
unclearness  arising  from  just  such  errors  is  by  no 
means  uncommon.  The  speakers  usually  know 
better,  of  course,  but,  owing  to  carelessness,  or  to 
open  disregard  of  form,  they  acquire  a  habit  of 
obscurity. 

D.  Force 

The  fourth  requisite  for  an  effective  style  of 
speaking  is  force.  This  quality  is  in  no  small 
part  inherent  in  unity,  coherence  and  clearness. 


Effective  Style  In  Speech  Composition     115 

But  additional  emphasis  may  be  secured  by 
special  attention  to  arrangement,  diction,  illus- 
tration and  proportion. 

I.  Arrangement 

The  essential  thing  to  bear  in  mind  about  ar- 
rangement is  to  use  the  most  significant  material 
where  it  will  do  the  most  good.  This  principle 
applies  even  to  the  order  within  single  sentences, 
where  weight  may  often  be  added  by  placing  the 
important  words  at,  or  near,  the  opening  or  clos- 
ing; also  by  arranging  series  of  words,  phrases  or 
clauses  in  the  order  of  increasing  importance. 
But  a  more  important  consideration  is  the  arrange- 
ment of  sentences  in  the  development  of  the 
various  phases,  and  of  phases  in  the  speech  as  a 
whole.  For  emphatic  effects  in  the  body  of  the 
speech,  the  best  opportunities  are  in  the  section 
which  immediately  follows  the  introduction,  and 
in  that  which  immediately  precedes  the  con- 
clusion. As  the  speaker  finishes  his  introductory 
remarks  and  launches  into  the  substance  of  his 
topic,  the  audience  is  apt  to  be  particularly  alert 
to  size  up  the  strength  of  his  case.  Therefore, 
whenever  the  plan  of  procedure  can  be  so  arranged, 
it  is  wise  to  open  with  one  of  the  most  significant 
phases  of  the  discussion.  A  typical  illustration 
of  such  an  arrangement  was  afforded  by  a  political 
speech  which  I  recently  heard.    The  opening  words 


Ii6    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

were,  In  effect,  "You  all  want  to  know  the  truth 
about  the  eight  hour  law."  The  treatment  of 
this  very  Important  factor  in  the  current  presi- 
dential campaign  was  followed  by  less  heated 
issues,  such  as  the  tariff,  woman  suffrage,  appoint- 
ments, etc.;  but  for  closing,  the  speaker  had  re- 
served his  most  emphatic  point,  America's  foreign 
policy,  because  of  the  strength  inherent  in  the 
final  position,  as  pointed  out  in  a  previous  chapter. 

The  outstanding  places  in  the  separate  sections 
are,  similarly,  at  the  beginning  and  the  end.  As 
a  rule  the  greatest  advantage  may  be  gained  here 
by  the  use  of  a  topic  sentence  In  opening,  and 
a  summary  sentence  In  closing  the  section.  The 
topic  sentence  gives  prominence  to  the  idea  to  be 
discussed,  and  the  summary  sentence,  expressing 
the  gist  of  the  thought  developed  in  the  section, 
presents  an  emphatic  close.  A  typical  illustration 
of  this  is  afforded  by  the  following  brief  excerpt 
from  a  speech  by  Mr.  Charles  C.  Pearce. 

"We  are  just  in  the  throes  of  tariff  revision. 
Early  in  March  was  Introduced  the  Payne  bill 
containing  a  number  of  modified  duties.  At  once 
a  highly  significant  struggle  began  in  Washington. 
The  country  seems  to  have  settled  upon  a  down- 
ward revision  of  the  tariff,  yet  each  group  is 
jealously  guarding  its  own  particular  Interests. 
Steel,  for  example,  rasps:  'Touch  not  our  sacred 
schedules!'     Lumber   and   pulp   cry:   'Cut   down 


Effective  Style  in  Speech  Composition     117 

your  newspapers,  not  our  profits!'  Agriculture 
growls:  'Cheap  shoes  by  all  means,  but  abate  not 
a  jot  of  the  duty  on  hides !'  Sugar  raises  the  slogan 
in  the  South:  'Preference  for  home  products!' 
In  short,  tariff  reduction,  in  theory  acceptable  to 
all,  is  well-nigh  unattainable,  simply  because  every 
group  insists  on  retaining  all  the  privileges  it 
now  enjoys." 

II.  Choke  of  Words 

a.  Simplicity 

In  securing  force  through  choice  of  words,  two 
principles  are  to  be  observed.  The  first  of  these, 
simplicity  of  diction,  has  already  been  dealt  with 
in  relation  to  clearness;  but  it  is  of  scarcely  less 
importance  as  a  factor  of  emphasis.  This  state- 
ment is  apt  to  appear  questionable,  if  not  para- 
doxical, to  an  Immature  speaker  since  bombastic 
diction  and  long,  involved  periods  are  so  much 
more  impressive  to  the  ear.  The  effective  speaker, 
however,  aims,  not  at  the  car  but  at  the  mind, 
which  is  not  to  be  captured  by  the  explosions  of 
blank-cartridge  diction.  It  is  true  that  the  subject- 
matter  of  some  speeches  is  so  thin  that  the  speaker 
finds  it  desirable  to  attempt  to  hide  his  poverty  of 
material  by  a  covering  of  words.  How  often, 
indeed,  one  is  tempted  to  cry  out  with  Hamlet, 
"Words,    words,    words!"      But    the    substantial 


Il8     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

address,  which  is  our  concern,  gains  strength  by 
simpHcity,  just  as  does  a  statue,  a  picture,  a  bridge, 
or  a  piece  of  machinery. 

b.  Precision 

Precision,  the  second  quality  of  diction  which 
makes  for  force,  means  the  employment  of  words 
which  express  the  speaker's  thoughts  with  exact- 
ness. This  requires  more  than  the  mere  avoidance 
of  misusage,  such  as  "ingenious"  for  "ingenuous," 
"allusion"  for  "illusion,"  "infer"  for  "imply," 
or  "arraign"  for  "indict";  it  calls  for  a  choice 
between  words  which  mean  something  similar 
but  are  not  synonymous.  In  other  words,  the 
precise  speaker  is  not  satisfied  to  convey  his  ideas 
approximately.  If  a  circumstance  is  merely  "ap- 
parent," he  does  not  term  it  "evident";  if  an 
act  is  only  "objected  to,"  he  does  not  refer  to  it 
as  "denounced."  Nor  does  he  carelessly  sprinkle 
his  addresses  with  such  colorless  and  inexact 
words  as  "thing,"  "factor,"  "and  so  forth";  nor 
habitually  begin  sentences  with  meaningless  time- 
markers  like  "why,"  "well,"  and  "now."  On 
the  contrary,  he  aims  to  make  every  word  not 
only  count,  but  also  express  the  thought  so  aptly 
that  any  change  would  weaken  the  effect.  Like 
many  other  qualities  discussed  heretofore,  such 
precision  in  extempore  speaking,  where  revision 
is  impossible,  is  an  ideal  to  be  sought  for  rather 


Effective  Style  in  Speech  Composition    119 

than  attained  absolutely.  Furthermore,  it  is, 
frankly,  a  quality  of  especial  difficulty  because  it 
requires  a  large  working  vocabulary.  But  since, 
next  to  a  well-stored  mind,  words  are  the  speaker's 
chief  tools,  he  cannot  afford  to  allow  difficulty  to 
discourage  him  from  persistent  cultivation  of  an 
adequate  and  readily-available  vocabulary. 

c.   Vocabulary  Building 

In  what  ways  can  we  work  toward  this  end? 
First,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  many  people  do  not 
take  full  advantage  of  the  vocabulary  which  they 
already  possess.  Many  bright,  expressive  words 
are  allowed  to  lie  like  swords  in  their  scabbards 
except  on  rare  occasions  when  unusual  stimulus 
brings  them  to  light.  Again,  many  words  are 
constantly  employed  in  hackneyed  combinations, 
with  a  lifeless,  colorless  result.  The  explanation 
is  that  it  takes  energy,  initiative  to  speak  freshly 
and  precisely.  Much  easier  is  it  to  talk  in  a 
common-place  manner,  using  over  and  over  the 
words  which,  through  repetition,  have  become 
the  first,  if  not  the  only,  line  of  expression.  All  too 
complacently  we  say  "a  long-felt  want,"  "a  nota- 
ble occasion,"  "the  pages  of  history,"  "let  us, 
therefore,"  "every  walk  of  life,"  "an  impressive 
scene,"  "last  but  not  least,"  "then,  and  then 
only."  \Vc  likewise  overwork  certain  single 
words    which    come    easily,    and    neglect    others 


I20     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

of  equal  or  greater  aptitude  which  we  know, 
perhaps,  but  are  too  indolent  or  indifferent  to 
draft.  As  a  random  example  take  "keen"  in  the 
expression  "a  keen  wit," — an  excellent  word  but 
often  less  opposite  than  "cutting,"  "trenchant," 
"sharp,"  "acrid,"  "caustic,"  "biting,"  "incisive," 
''drastic,"  "poignant,"  "vivid,"  "virulent,"  or 
"corrosive."  An  examination  of  such  a  book  as 
Roget's  "Thesaurus,"  or  Crabbe's  "Synonyms," 
will  awaken  a  realization  of  similar  varieties  of 
expression  at  the  speaker's  command.  And  the 
student  owes  it  to  himself  to  put  into  active  service 
at  least  those  words  which  already  belong  to  his 
vocabulary. 

But  he  should  not  be  satisfied  with  his  present 
equipment.  Perhaps  he  can  extend  his  vocabulary 
by  using  various  devices  which  have  been  helpful 
to  eminent  writers  and  speakers.  Benjamin 
FrankHn  tells  us  In  his  "Autobiography"  that  he 
benefited  by  paraphrasing  literary  passages  which 
required  the  use  of  terms  new  to  him.  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson  carried  about  with  him  a  note- 
book in  which  he  wrote  practice  sketches,  using 
the  words  which  arose  In  connection  with  the  new 
activities  and  scenes  encountered  in  his  travels. 
Rufus  Choate  found  advantage  in  translating 
foreign  languages.  Robert  Browning  and  Lord 
Chatham  studied  the  dictionary  outright.  It  is 
obvious  that  such  exercises  take  time,  and  it  is, 


Effective  Style  in  Speech  Composition     121 

therefore,  fortunate  that  every  person  who  reads 
and  converses  must  necessarily  increase  his  supply 
of  words  by  absorption.  This  unconscious  process, 
indeed,  is  largely  responsible  for  such  vocabu- 
laries as  most  of  us  possess.  The  accumulation  is 
too  slow,  however,  for  the  speaker  who  would 
rapidly  strengthen  his  style  through  precision.  It 
is  highly  desirable  that  he  increase  his  word  power 
by  some  form  of  conscious  effort.  He  may  not 
be  inclined  to  put  into  practice  any  of  the  exer- 
cises recommended  above,  but  certainly  when  he 
reads,  converses,  or  listens  to  speakers  he  should 
be  on  the  alert  to  seize  upon  any  words,  or  felici- 
tous phrases  with  which  he  is  not  familiar.  These 
should  be  jotted  down  for  dictionary  reference 
at  the  earliest  opportunity.  It  is  then  essential 
to  make  use  of  these  words,  soon  and  frequently, 
in  order  that  they  may  become  a  part  of  the 
speaker's  working  vocabulary.  This  simple  and 
natural  method  is  within  the  capability  of  even 
the  busiest  people.  Therefore,  while  the  speaker 
is  enlarging  his  knowledge  of  men  and  affairs, 
there  is  no  excuse  for  not  keeping  his  vocabulary 
abreast. 

III.  Illustration 

A  liberal  use  of  illustration  is  another  means  of 
adding  forcefulncss  to  our  speaking.  The  reason 
for  this  is  that  the  concrete  is  proverbially  more 


122     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

penetrating  than  the  abstract,  whether  the  appea' 
be  to  the  Intellect  or  to  the  emotions.  A  definition 
which  Is  crystallized  in  the  shape  of  a  specific 
example,  an  exposition  of  conditions  which  In- 
corporates Instances  in  point,  an  argument  which 
is  applied  to  particular  cases — all  of  these  embody 
greater  emphasis  than  would  be  possible  if  only 
the  abstract  matter  were  used.  Note  the  em- 
phatic effect  of  specific  cases  in  the  subjoined 
excerpt  from  one  of  Henry  Van  Dyke's  speeches. 
"Who  sneers  at  commerce.''  Is  It  the  devotee  of 
learning.'*  Let  him  remember  that  it  was  the 
traders  of  Phoenicia  who  gave  letters  to  Greece; 
it  was  the  maritime  states  of  Greece  who  adorned 
the  world  with  poetry,  and  philosophy,  and  art; 
it  was  the  age  of  England's  commercial  supremacy 
which  brought  the  highest  glory  to  her  universi- 
ties. It  Is  in  great  part  the  liberality  of  merchants 
which  has  established  on  our  shores  those  great 
institutions  of  learning — Harvard,  Yale,  Prince- 
ton, Columbia,  Cornell.  Let  him  remember  the 
little  commercial  city  of  Leyden,  and  her  im- 
perishable example.  For  when  her  heroic  siege 
was  ended — when  she  had  won  her  unparalleled 
victories  against  armies,  ships,  cannon,  pestilence, 
flood,  and  famine — when  the  Prince  of  Orange 
in  his  unbounded  gratitude  came  and  asked  her 
to  choose  her  reward — that  little  city  of  Dutch 
merchants  chose  not  gold,  nor  freedom  from  taxes, 


Effective  Style  in  Speech  Composition    123 

but  a  university,  and  the  reward  of  her  defense 
became  the  Hght  of  Europe." 

IV.  Proportion 

Proportion,  as  a  factor  of  emphasis,  requires 
that  we  elaborate  any  given  phase  of  a  subject 
with  just  consideration  for  the  relative  importance 
which  we  attach  to  it.  Generally  speaking,  the 
more  time  we  devote  to  a  section,  the  more  sig- 
nificant it  appears.  The  failure  to  observe  this 
principle,  a  very  common  occurrence,  is  apt  to 
ruin  the  chances  for  making  the  best  of  our  oppor- 
tunity. The  causes  of  most  errors  of  proportion 
are  not  far  to  seek. 

a.  Causes  of  Bad  Proportion 

In  the  first  place,  the  untried  speaker  is  almost 
invariably  possessed  of  the  idea  that  he  cannot 
"hold  the  floor"  for  any  appreciable  length  of 
time.  This  notion  results  in  over-elaboration  of 
the  earlier  phases  of  his  address,  with  hasty  treat- 
ment, or,  if  time  is  strictly  limited,  even  total 
omission  of  parts  intended  for  later  development. 
Such  an  outcome  is  particularly  disastrous  if  the 
address  has  been  properly  planned  to  discuss  the 
most  significant  aspects  near  the  close.  In  view 
of  this  common  failure  it  cannot  be  too  strongly 
urged  that  time  flies  when  the  speaker  really  has 


124    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

something  to  say,  and  that  it  is  essential  to  beware 
of  dwelling  too  long  upon  the  opening  phases. 

A  second  cause  of  bad  proportion  is  the  tempta- 
tion to  dilate  upon  a  phase  which  affords  easy  or 
pleasant  means  of  elaboration.  Of  course,  if 
such  a  section  be  vital,  the  circumstance  is  a 
happy  one;  if  it  concerns  a  subordinate  matter, 
the  misapplied  emphasis  Is  unfortunate.  Some- 
times the  unwise  elaboration  arises  from  the  fact 
that  the  speaker  happened  to  unearth  an  abun- 
dance of  material  on  a  relatively  Insignificant 
point.  Again,  a  story  or  some  other  form  of  illus- 
tration may  lure  the  unwary  speaker  on  into  an 
elaboration  which  eclipses  the  point  under  dis- 
cussion. Whatever  the  cause,  the  person  who 
aims  at  effective  speaking  must  exercise  sufficient 
restraint  to  keep  subordinate  features  within 
proper  bounds. 

b.  Emphasis  hy  Proportion 

On  the  other  hand,  relatively  important  aspects 
should  be  given  the  emphasis  which  derives  from 
larger  proportions.  Beginning  with  the  reading 
and  note-taking,  more  pains  should  be  taken  to 
secure  material  which  bears  upon  the  most  salient 
points.  Next,  in  planning  the  development  of 
such  points,  the  speaker  should  calculate  upon  a 
more  exhaustive  elaboration,  utilizing  more  freely 
than  for  the  minor  phases  the  various  methods, 


Eifectlve  Style  in  Speech  Composition    125 

such  as  definition,  repetition,  illustration,  and 
comparison.  Finally,  in  the  address  itself,  the 
speaker  should  amplify  in  keeping  with  the  plan, 
avoiding  the  pitfalls  of  false  emphasis,  and  taking 
advantage  of  the  force  which  inheres  in  relative 
fulness  of  treatment.  Herein  he  must  use  judg- 
ment for  since  every  topic  and  phase  of  a  topic 
presents  its  own  particular  problem,  and  inas- 
much as  the  attitude  of  the  specific  audience  ad- 
dressed may  in  great  measure  determine  the 
points  for  emphasis,  no  inflexible  rule  of  propor- 
tion Is  feasible.  In  this  respect,  consider  the  recent 
Presidential  campaign.  In  some  parts  of  the 
country  the  slogan,  "He  kept  us  out  of  war," 
gave  the  speaker  his  cue  for  proportion;  in  others 
industrial  and  social  legislation  was  the  issue  of 
paramount  significance;  in  still  other  parts  the 
tariflF  question  chiefly  occupied  the  people's  at- 
tention. Clearly,  then,  regarding  proportion,  the 
speaker  who  would  influence  such  varied  atti- 
tudes must  be  flexible,  just  as  is  an  advertiser 
who  emphasizes  quality  when  appealing  to  the 
wealthy,  and  low  prices  when  offering  a  cheaper 
product  to  the  poorer  classes. 

E.  Attractiveness — A  Special  Quality 

And  now  comes  a  special  quality  of  style,  essen- 
tial to  the  most  effective  type  of  speaking — a 
quality  which  will  ordinarily  be  developed  as  the 


126     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

speaker  grows  In  self-confidence  and  power.  It 
is,  frankly,  more  elusive  than  those  fundamentals 
hitherto  presented  In  that  It  cannot  be  wholly 
devised  out  of  ordinary  speech-matter,  but  must 
In  part  spring  from  a  sense  cultivated  In  the 
speaker  himself.  Unity,  coherence,  clearness 
and  force  are  characteristics  which  can  be  given 
to  an  address  by  the  good  artisan  of  speech;  and 
if  they  are  observed  as  set  forth  In  the  preceding 
sections,  they  are  sufficient  to  carry  the  speaker's 
message  with  not  only  convincing  but  also  per- 
suasive effect.  The  quality,  however,  toward 
which  we  are  directing  our  attention  contributes 
a  particularly  appealing  character  to  style,  and 
calls  into  play  the  workmanship  of  the  artist 
rather  than  that  of  the  mere  artisan.  Various 
names  might  be  applied  to  this  quality — grace, 
charm,  beauty — but  these  are  not  sufficiently 
comprehensive;  a  more  accurate  t€rm  Is  attrac- 
tiveness. 

Attractiveness  essays  especially  to  add  Imagina- 
tive touches  to  the  speaking,  to  relieve  the  prosaic 
tone,  to  brighten  and  decorate  the  expression — ■ 
in  short,  to  please  the  listener.  And  though  I 
have  called  It  elusive,  and  coupled  it  with  the 
artist.  It  is  not  altogether  vague  and  beyond  the 
scope  of  analysis.  Some,  at  least,  of  the  features 
which  make  for  attractiveness  of  style  in  speech 
composition  can  be  isolated,  classified  and  put  to 


Effective  Style  in  Speech  Composition     127 

use  by  the  student.  The  chief  of  these  are  figures 
of  speech,  wit,  humor,  colorful,  suggestive  dic- 
tion, bits  of  quotation,  and  variety  in  sentence 
structure.    These  we  shall  consider  in  some  detail. 

I.  Figures  of  Speech 

The  most  useful  figures  of  speech  are  the  simile 
and  the  metaphor.  While  not  employed  in  modern 
speech  with  such  frequency  or  elaboration  of 
detail  as  they  were  in  the  earlier  and  more  florid 
"oratory,"  an  occasional  well-chosen  figure  un- 
questionably adds  grace,  succinctness  and  vivid- 
ness to  expression.  When  Irving  suggests  that 
Ichabod  Crane  was  like  "a  scarecrow  escaped 
from  a  neighboring  cornfield,"  he  depicts  the 
lanky,  loose-jointed,  shabby  pedagogue  at  full 
length  and  in  more  striking  manner  than  several 
sentences  could  accomplish.  If  a  speaker  refers 
to  an  official  as  a  "rubber-stamp,"  he  epitomizes 
a  long  story  in  the  metaphor.  The  efficacy  of 
such  figures  depends  upon  selecting  for  the  simile 
or  metaphor  something  which  connotes  instantly 
the  essential  nature  or  qualities  which  we  would 
emphasize  in  the  matter  under  discussion.  "  Scare- 
crow," for  example,  immediately  and  distinctly 
calls  up  an  image  which  such  adjectives  as  "limp," 
"dangling,"  "ungainly,"  and  "tattered"  charac- 
terize only  in  part.  "Rubber-stamp"  suggests 
at  once  a  lack  of  independence,  of  originality,  a 


128     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

state  of  servitude,  an  utter  unimportance,  and 
other  things  which  it  would  be  difficult  to  state 
oif-hand.  The  average  speaker  may  occasionally 
originate  a  telling  simile  or  metaphor  on  the  spur 
of  the  moment,  but  a  little  premeditation  on 
three  or  four  apt  figures  for  any  given  address  is 
advisable  for  the  inexperienced.  It  is  well  to 
note,  moreover,  that  some  of  the  most  effective 
figures  used  in  speaking  are  borrowed,  wholly  or 
in  part,  from  literature.  The  new  relationship 
supplied  by  the  speaker  affords  a  positive  touch 
of  originality,  as  in  the  figure,  "The  promises  of 
the  honorable  member  are  like  the  chaff  which  the 
wind  driveth  away."  The  student  will  do  well 
to  note  for  future  use  any  especially  happy  figures 
which  he  meets  in  his  reading,  always  avoiding 
those  which  are  hackneyed,  over-elaborate,  or 
far-fetched. 

II.  Wit  and  Humor 

Wit  and  humor  is  a  more  difficult  subject  to 
deal  with,  and  in  the  present  limited  scope  it  is 
possible  to  attempt  only  the  most  general  discus- 
sion. This  may,  nevertheless,  be  suggestive  in 
helping  the  student  to  apply  his  own  sense  of 
wit  and  humor  to  speaking.  In  the  first  place — 
and  this  is  often  not  realized — there  is  rarely  a 
speech  of  such  grave  import  that  it  does  not  gain 
by  a  touch  of  humor  here  and  there.     Even  the 


Effective  Style  in  Speech  Composition     129 

so-called  "highbrow"  audience  relishes  it,  and  no 
matter  how  serious  the  speaker's  mission  may  be, 
he  is  wise  if  he  serves  his  heavy  courses  with  a  lit- 
tle sauce.  This  may  consist  of  a  humorous  anec- 
dote or  incident,  a  passage  of  clever  dialogue,  or  a 
witty  turn  of  expression.  Such  means  of  enliven- 
ing a  speech  afford  what  the  writers  of  drama 
call  "relief"  or  "comic  relief";  and  the  average 
speech  needs  it  quite  as  much  as  "Macbeth" 
needs  the  tipsy  porter.  "Relief"  should  never 
be  long  sustained  for  brevity  is  truly  the  soul  of  it. 
Furthermore,  it  might  better  be  omitted  altogether 
than  to  seem  forced  or  dragged  in  for  the  mere 
sake  of  a  laugh.  This  means  that  the  humorous 
bit  should  always  arise,  or  seem  to  arise,  naturally 
in  the  course  of  the  discussion.  This  docs  not 
mean  that  it  must  necessarily  have  a  pertinent 
bearing  on  the  topic.  Notice,  for  example,  how 
easily  a  touch  of  irrelevant  humor  is  injected  into 
the  following  passage  from  one  of  President 
Wilson's  speeches. 

"I  have  sometimes  reflected  on  the  lack  of  a 
body  of  public  opinion  in  our  cities,  and  once  I 
contrasted  the  habits  of  the  city  man  with  those 
of  the  countryman  in  a  way  which  got  me  into 
trouble.  I  described  what  a  man  in  a  city  gener- 
ally did  when  he  got  into  a  public  vehicle  or  sat 
in  a  public  place.  He  doesn't  talk  to  anybody, 
but  he  plunges   his   head   into  a   newspaper  and 


130    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

presently  experiences  a  reaction  which  he  calls 
his  opinion,  but  which  Is  not  an  opinion  at  all, 
being  merely  the  impression  that  a  piece  of  news 
or  an  editorial  has  made  upon  him.  He  cannot 
be  said  to  be  participating  in  public  opinion  at  all 
until  he  has  laid  his  mind  alongside  the  minds  of 
his  neighbors  and  discussed  with  them  the  Inci- 
dents of  the  day  and  the  tendencies  of  the  time. 

"Where  I  got  into  trouble  was,  that  I  ventured 
on  a  comparison.  I  said  that  public  opinion  was 
not  typified  on  the  streets  of  a  busy  city,  but  was 
typified  around  the  stove  In  a  country  store  where 
men  sat  and  probably  chewed  tobacco  and  spat 
into  a  sawdust  box,  and  made  up,  before  they 
got  through,  what  was  the  neighborhood  opinion 
both  about  persons  and- events;  and  then,  inad- 
vertently, I  added  this  philosophical  reflection, 
that,  whatever  might  be  said  against  the  chewing 
of  tobacco,  this  at  least  could  be  said  for  It:  that 
it  gave  a  man  time  to  think  between  sentences. 
Ever  since  then  I  have  been  represented,  par- 
ticularly in  the  advertisements  of  tobacco  firms,  as 
in  favor  of  the  use  of  chewing  tobacco!" 

In  the  above  passage,  the  foundation  for  the 
humorous  sally  Is  laid  with  the  sentence,  "Where 
I  got  Into  trouble  was  that  I  ventured  on  a  com- 
parison." After  that,  it  is  smooth  going.  From 
this  suggestion  the  student  of  speaking  may  note 
that  even  purely  humorous  anecdotes  or  incidents 


Effective  Style  in  Speech  Composition     131 

can  usually  be  brought  in  gracefully  by  a  little 
care  in  phrasing  a  transitional  sentence  which 
leads  from  the  serious  matter  into  the  subject  of 
the  pleasantry. 

A  clever  presentation  of  an  idea,  or  a  witty 
phrase  or  epithet  serves  much  the  same  purpose 
as  the  touch  of  humor.  For  example,  a  recent 
speaker  said,  "Many  nice  things  have  been  re- 
marked of  Christian  Science,  and  I  must  confess 
that  I  have  but  two  objections  to  it:  first,  that  it 
is  not  Christian;  and,  second,  that  it  is  not  science." 
Without  venturing  an  opinion  on  the  soundness 
of  the  objections,  I  can  affirm  that  the  audience 
was  pleased  by  the  neatness  of  the  expression. 
In  another  recent  address,  condemning  corporate 
wealth,  the  speaker  referred  to  a  board  of  directors 
as  "an  opulent  and  corpulent  body  of  gentlemen." 
These  two  random  illustrations  serve  merely  to 
indicate  the  kind  of  expression  which  may  be 
used  occasionally,  in  addition  to  the  humorous 
anecdote  or  incident,  to  brighten  the  speaker's 
style.  Without  some  such  piquancy,  a  substan- 
tial speech  is  apt  to  fall  flat — indeed,  oftentimes 
the  more  substantial  it  is,  the  greater  is  the  fall 
thereof.  The  average  audience  can  stand  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  fact,  of  logic,  of  the  solid 
material  which,  as  I  have  previously  emphasized, 
must  constitute  the  body  of  a  speech  with  serious 
purpose.     But  it  is  human  after  all,  and  prone  to 


132     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

become  weary,  bored,  inattentive — or  absent. 
If  the  great  Burke  had  only  injected  some  bits  of 
pleasantry  into  that  monumental  "Conciliation 
Speech"  perhaps  history  might  have  taken  a 
different  course. 


III.   Variety  of  Sentence  Structure 

A  somewhat  less  striking,  but  highly  desirable, 
means  of  attractiveness  is  variety  of  sentence 
structure.  The  student  will  recall  numerous 
ways  of  variation,  but  I  shall  suggest  some  of  the 
most  serviceable.  First  as  to  the  order  of  parts; 
the  usual  sequence  is  subject-predicate-object  or 
attribute,  for  the  sake  of  clearness.  But  an  ad- 
dress which  proceeds  thus  from  beginning  to  end 
becomes  monotonous,  just  as  if  one  were  to  speak 
without  vocal  inflections.  Fortunately  an  occa- 
sional change  of  order  does  not  confuse  the  lis- 
tener; and  it  assuredly  contributes,  along  with 
other  variations,  to  his  pleasure  in  hearing  a  speech. 
It  is  well,  then,  to  begin  sometimes  with  a  phrase, 
sometimes  with  an  adverb  and  again,  with  an 
adjective,  object,  attribute,  or  dependent  clause. 
Furthermore,  it  is  desirable  to  vary  the  declarative 
form  now  and  then  by  an  interrogation  or  ex- 
clamation. A  third  possibility  of  change  is  in 
the  length  of  the  sentences.  The  very  long  sen- 
tence will  be  generally  avoided  by  the  speaker, 


Effective  Style  in  Speech  Composition     133 

but  an  irregular  mixture  of  moderate  and  short 
sentences  will  avoid  choppiness  of  effect  on  the 
one  hand,  and  on  the  other,  unnecessary  strain 
upon  the  attention  of  the  audience.  Ordinarily, 
sentences  are  what  are  known  as  loose,  i.  e.,  pos- 
sible of  logical  termination  at  one  or  more  points 
before  the  close.  But  these  may  be  occasionally 
varied  to  advantage  by  a  periodic  sentence,  which 
suspends  the  sense  until  the  end.  For  example, 
"The  work  of  the  committee  has  stopped  on  ac- 
count of  lack  of  funds"  (loose);  and  "On  account 
of  lack  of  funds,  the  work  of  the  committee  has 
stopped"  (periodic).  Another  means  of  variation 
is  the  balanced  structure  such  as,  "Money  has' 
been  called  the  root  of  all  evil;  but  most  people 
seek  it  as  If  It  were  the  bulb  of  all  happiness.  The 
possessors  of  great  wealth  are  said  to  be  weighed 
down  with  responsibility;  and  yet  there  are  few 
of  us  who  wouldn't  gladly  assume  such  a  burden." 
This  kind  of  structure  becomes  artificial  in  effect 
if  frequently  used,  but  as  an  occasional  device 
it  is  notably  emphatic.  A  final  suggestion  for 
securing  attractiveness  through  variety  of  struc- 
ture Is  to  use  now  and  then  a  sentence  charac- 
terized by  words,  phrases  or  clauses  In  a  scries  of 
parallel  construction.  The  greatest  advantage 
is  usually  gained  by  arranging  the  members  of 
the  scries  with  a  view  to  increasing  significance. 
The  following  passage  from  one  of  John  M.  Thurs- 


134    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

ton's  speeches  gives  a  very  striking  example  of 
the  cumulative  force  of  a  series. 

"Force  compelled  the  signature  of  unwilling 
royalty  to  the  great  Magna  Charta;  force  put  life 
into  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  made 
effective  the  Emancipation  Proclamation;  force 
beat  with  naked  hands  upon  the  iron  gateway 
of  the  Bastille  and  made  reprisal  in  one  awful 
hour  for  centuries  of  kingly  crime;  force  waved 
the  flag  of  revolution  over  Bunker  Hill,  and  marked 
the  snows  of  Valley  Forge  with  blood-stained  feet; 
force  held  the  broken  line  at  Shiloh,  climbed  the 
flame-swept  hill  at  Chattanooga,  and  stormed 
the  clouds  on  Lookout  Heights;  force  marched 
with  Sherman  to  the  sea,  rode  with  Sheridan  in 
the  valley  of  the  Shenandoah,  and  gave  Grant 
victory  at  Appomattox;  force  saved  the  Union, 
kept  the  stars  in  the  flag,  made  *  niggers '  men." 

F.  Summary 

Style  and  diction,  though  primarily  concerned 
with  form  rather  than  substance,  are,  neverthe- 
less, significant  with  respect  to  both  conviction 
and  persuasion.  In  order  to  appeal  to  the  minds 
and  interests  of  an  audience,  a  speech  should  be 
characterized  by  the  fundamentals  of  a  good 
style,  unity,  coherence,  clearness,  force,  and  by  a 
fifth  quality,  attractiveness,  which  adds  greatly 
to  the  effectiveness  of  address.     Unity  requires 


Effective  Style  in  Speech  Composition     135 

that  the  development  of  a  speech  shall  bear  con- 
stantly upon  the  subject  under  consideration, 
and  that  the  discussion  of  each  component  phase 
shall  pertain  exclusively  to  that  phase.  Coher- 
ence is  the  flowing,  progressive  quality  which  is 
secured  by  a  logical  sequence  of  thoughts,  ex- 
pressed with  proper  links  making  sentence  and 
topical  relationships  explicit.  Clearness,  likewise, 
pertains  to  both  thought  and  .expression.  It 
requires  a  sure  grasp  of  the  subject-matter,  sim- 
plicity of  diction,  and  conciseness  and  directness 
of  construction.  Force  in  a  measure  inheres  in 
the  qualities  already  mentioned,  but  it  can  be 
greatly  increased  in  the  following  ways:  (i)  by 
placing  in  the  opening  and  closing  positions  of 
sentences,  sections,  and  the  whole  development, 
the  most  important  words,  sentences,  and  phases, 
respectively;  (2)  by  using  words  which  are  simple, 
but  at  the  same  time  adequate  and  precise:  (3)  by 
freely  using  illustrations  and  concrete  cases  in 
point;  (4)  by  avoiding  temptations  to  over- 
elaborate  minor  factors,  and  by  giving  due  pro- 
portion to  important  aspects.  For  acquiring 
attractiveness  of  style  the  following  suggestions 
were  offered:  (i)  the  use  of  figures  of  speech,  par- 
ticularly the  simile  and  metaphor;  (2)  wit  and 
humor,  including  the  humorous  incident  or  anec- 
dote, a  bit  of  witty  dialogue,  a  clever  turn  of 
phrase;  (3)  variety  of  sentence  structure,  secured 


136     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

by  changing  the  regular  order  of  parts,  and  using 
such  variations  from  the  normal  as  interroga- 
tions, exclamations,  short,  periodic,  balanced, 
and  "series"  sentences. 

A  knowledge  of  the  factors  which  make  for  an 
effective  style  of  speech  composition  constitutes 
an  advantageous  point  of  departure.  If,  however, 
the  student  is  careless  in  his  preparation  and  fails 
to  speak  deliberately,  with  the  idea  of  cultivating 
a  habitual  and  spontaneous  observance  of  the 
principles  advocated,  his  knowledge  is  of  little 
practical  value.  Finally,  it  is  to  be  noted  that 
the  principles  must  be  joined  into  a  composite 
whole,  and  fused  by  the  personality  and  attitude 
of  the  individual  speaker.  These  matters  of 
personality  and  attitude  are  of  such  importance 
in  relation  to  style  as  to  call  for  detailed  con- 
sideration in  the  following  chapters. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  PERSONALITY  OF  THE  SPEAKER 

In  "VIrginibus  Puerisque"  Robert  Louis  Ste- 
venson wrote:  "An  orator  makes  a  false  step;  he 
employs  some  trivial,'  some  absurd,  some  vulgar 
phrase;  in  a  turn  of  a  sentence  he  insults,  by  a 
side  wind,  those  whom  he  is  laboring  to  charm; 
in  speaking  to  one  sentiment  he  unconsciously 
ruffles  another  in  parenthesis;  and  you  are  not 
surprised,  for  you  know  his  task  to  be  delicate 
and  filled  with  perils."  The  last  clause  conveys 
a  rather  extreme  impression,  but  it  will  be  readily 
admitted  that  to  satisfy  and  please  an  audience 
requires  the  best  there  is  in  a  man.  And  since 
the  things  he  will  say  and  the  way  in  which  he 
will  say  them  are  greatly  influenced  by  his  per- 
sonality, his  attitude  toward  his  subject,  and  his 
attitude  toward  his  audience,  we  may  profitably 
examine  these  aspects  with  care.  In  this  chapter 
we  shall  take  up  the  personal  qualities  most  es- 
sential to  the  success  of  a  speaker.  These  may 
he  classified  under  three  heads:  self-confidence, 
sincerity,  and  what  is  variously  known  as  charm, 
graciousness,  or  magnetism. 

137 


138     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

A.  Self-confidence 

With  respect  to  self-confidence,  the  speaker  is, 
for  the  time  being,  a  leader;  he  assumes  to  direct 
the  thoughts,  or,  it  may  be,  the  actions  of  his 
listeners.  In  this  position,  timidity  is  almost  as 
much  out  of  place  as  it  would  be  in  an  officer  at  the 
head  of  a  body  of  troops.  A  lack  of  self-confidence 
results  in  a  nervous,  halting,  unconvincing  pres- 
entation. Furthermore,  it  frequently  causes  the 
speaker  to  express  himself  in  a  sketchy,  incomplete 
fashion,  even  when  he  has  a  real  message  and  is 
adequately  prepared  to  deliver  it.  He  takes  the 
floor  in  a  convention,  let  us  say,  because  he 
thinks  he  has  a  contribution  to  make  to  the  dis- 
cussion. Upon  facing  the  audience,  he  becomes 
self-conscious,  panicky.  In  some  instances  a 
vague,  and  often  mistaken,  sense  of  inability  to 
express  his  thoughts  overwhelms  him,  and  he 
gives  up  after  a  few  detached  sentences.  An- 
other cause  of  such  a  failure  is  that  as  the  timid 
speaker  begins  to  talk  he  gets  the  notion  that  his 
ideas  are  too  well  known,  too  common-place  to 
warrant  their  development.  Consequently  he 
aims  to  sit  down  as  soon  as  possible.  The  chances 
are  that  a  following  speaker  with  more  assurance 
can  take  the  same  ideas  and  elaborate  them  with 
credit  to  himself  and  profit  to  his  audience.  Many 
of  us,  especially  when  before  an  audience,  are  all 


The  Personality  of  the  Speaker       139 

too  ready  to  retreat  upon  the  auto-suggestion 
that  our  thoughts  are  not  new  and  striking.  Even 
if  they  are  not,  a  fresh  expression,  a  recombination 
of  them  may  be  worth  while.  Indeed,  if  only 
new  and  original  thoughts  were  fit  for  public  utter- 
ance, public  speaking  and  several  allied  arts 
would  have  died  a  natural  death  long  ago.  Of 
course,  if  a  man  has  nothing  worth  while  to  say, 
the  time  to  reach  that  decision  is  before  he  leaves 
his  seat;  the  poorest  place  to  say  nothing  is  in 
front  of  an  audience. 

I.   The  Basis  for  Self-confidence 

How  can  assurance,  self-confidence  be  gained.'' 
Broad  reading,  thoughtful  reading,  which  gives  a 
person  some  degree  of  familiarity  with  the  best 
that  is  thought  and  known  in  various  selected 
fields  is  one  preliminary  step.  Careful  observa- 
tion of  the  people  and  things  which  surround  him 
day  by  day  is  another  step.  A  man  who  reads 
thoughtfully  and  sees  things  with  real  discern- 
ment, whether  they  be  children's  games,  factories, 
sunsets,  crowds  before  shop  windows,  or  forests 
in  winter  is  laying  a  foundation  for  self-confidence 
in  speaking,  because  he  is  acquiring  a  store  of 
thoughts  and  experiences  upon  which  such  con- 
fidence is  most  securely  built. 


140     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

II.  Ad  cans  of  Development 

Now  let  us  consider  some  more  direct  methods 
of  securing  self-confidence.  Much  that  has  been 
said  in  earlier  chapters  about  thorough  prepara- 
tion for  an  address  has  an  emphatic  bearing  upon 
this  matter.  Again,  we  gain  confidence  by  be- 
coming accustomed  to  expressing  our  thoughts 
in  words.  This  can  be  done  by  frequent  practice 
in  writing,  and  especially  in  thoughtful  conversa- 
tion. Instead  of  being  satisfied  with  laconic  ex- 
changes, we  should  cultivate  the  habit  of  de- 
veloping ideas  in  our  more  leisurely  talks  with 
companions.  We  can  gain  confidence  in  express- 
ing our  thoughts  also  by  thinking  aloud  in  the 
privacy  of  our  homes.  It  would  probably  be  sur- 
prising to  hear  how  many  excellent  sermons  and 
speeches  have  been  worked  out  with  chairs  and 
tables  as  uncomplaining  practice  audiences. 
Finally,  the  training  par  excellence  for  self- 
confidence  is  actual  appearance  before  audiences. 
Every  chance  to  speak,  whether  in  class-room, 
social  gathering,  club-room,  or  on  formal  occasion 
should  be  seized  as  an  opportunity  to  develop 
that  factor  of  power  which  confidence  alone  can 
give. 

B.  Sincerity 

The  second  personal  quality  requisite  for  effect- 
ive speaking  is  sincerity.    There  are,  to  be  sure, 


The  Personality  of  the  Speaker       141 

certain  subjects  and  occasions  which  permit  levity 
of  treatment.  But  in  dealing  with  serious  matters 
the  speaker,  as  a  rule,  reaches  the  hearts  and 
minds  of  his  listeners  only  when  he  expresses  his 
real  thoughts  and  feelings.  Insincerity,  whether 
open,  or  hidden  under  an  assumed  earnestness,  is 
ill-calculated  to  win  for  a  speaker  the  esteem 
which  counts  so  much  to  his  advantage.  We  all 
despise  anything  which  savors  of  hypocrisy,  and 
we  all  like  a  straightforward  man  even  if  his 
views  are  opposed  to  our  own.  Often  a  speaker's 
very  earnestness  is  in  no  small  part  responsible 
for  an  actual  change  of  heart,  to  say  nothing  of  a 
favorable  hearing,  on  the  part  of  antagonistic 
auditors.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  under  the  influence 
of  such  earnestness  as  is  displayed  by  men  like 
Mr.  Roosevelt  many  who  come  to  scoff  remain  to 
pray.^ 

This  sincerity  of  which  I  am  speaking  is  not  a 
quality  which  can  be  put  on  like  a  surplice  and 
removed  at  convenience.  If  it  exists  in  a  person, 
it  exists  as  a  part  of  the  warp  and  woof  of  that 
person's  character.  Therefore,  it  must  be  culti- 
vated in  one's  daily  life.  A  man  who  habitually 
thinks  of  life  as  more  or  less  of  a  joke,  or  who  or- 
dinarily talks  as  if  nothing  counted  much  is  apt 
to  give  an  impression  of  insincerity  when  he 
speaks  in  public.  Another  type  of  insincerity  is 
represented  by  the  person  who  gets,  and  deserves, 


142     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

the  comment,  "Oh,  he  loves  to  hear  himself  talk." 
That  win  not  be  said  of  the  speaker  who  strives 
to  understand  and  to  sympathize  broadly  with 
the  lives  and  activities  of  his  fellowmen,  and  who 
appears  before  an  audience  with  the  same  true 
sincerity  which  characterizes  his  habitual  attitude. 


C.  Charm 

The  third  quality  which  should  be  cultivated 
by  the  speaker  Is  charm,  or  magnetism.  This, 
as  was  said  of  humor  In  the  discussion  of  style.  Is 
an  elusive  quality  to  analyze,  partly  because  with 
different  individuals  It  manifests  itself  In  such 
various  kinds  and  degrees.  Unquestionably  a 
speaker  is  fortunate  if  he  is  just  naturally  gifted 
with  an  attractive  personality.  But  certain  at- 
tributes can  be  cultivated  which  will  lend  no  small 
degree  of  charm  to  the  speaker. 

I.  Modesty 

First,  among  these  attributes,  may  be  men- 
tioned modesty  or.  If  one  pleases,  the  absence  of 
anything  suggestive  of  bluster,  of  self-assertive- 
ness.  Not  Infrequently  a  speaker  by  adopting  an 
attitude  of  superiority  or  of  domineering  ruins  his 
chances  of  winning  an  audience,  irrespective  of 
what  he  has  to  say.     People  are  not  well-disposed 


The  Personality  of  the  Speaker       143 

toward  the  views  of  a  man,  however  much  he 
may  know,  who  presumes  to  say,  in  effect,  "You 
ignorant  ones,  Hsten  to  me  who  know  it  all."  The 
attitude  of  the  audience  is  not  improved  even  if 
this  sentiment  is  put  in  the  more  bland  language 
of  a  Brutus:  "Hear  me  for  my  cause,  and  be  silent 
that  you  may  hear;  believe  me  for  mine  honor, 
and  have  respect  to  mine  honor  that  you  may 
believe;  censure  me  in  your  wisdom,  and  awake 
your  senses  that  you  may  the  better  judge."  No, 
the  audience  respects  self-confidence,  as  stated 
before,  but  it  likes  a  self-confidence  that  has  no 
dealings  with  self-assertiveness.  Nor  is  the  lis- 
tener drawn  to  a  speaker  whose  modesty  savors 
of  self-depreciation  of  the  Uriah  Heep  type.  In 
a  word,  the  quality  under  consideration  is  best 
exemplified  in  the  man  whose  words  and  manner 
bespeak  a  personality  which  neither  ofi"ends  by  a 
display  of  superiority,  nor  disgusts  by  condescen- 
sion. 

II.  Geniality 

Quite  as  important  as  modesty  is  geniality. 
This  quality  radiates  from  the  speaker  and  warms 
the  audience  into  a  feeling  of  accord  with  him. 
One  occasionally  hears  a  man  who  "captivates 
his  listeners"  even  before  he  begins  to  speak.  An 
expression  of  sympathetic  and  infectious  good- 
humor  docs  the  work.     Admittedly  this  radiant 


144    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

quality  is  difficult  in  the  case  of  an  immature 
speaker  under  the  handicap  of  timidity,  nervous- 
ness— or  poor  preparation.  But  such  a  person 
can  avoid  the  last-mentioned  obstacle,  and  he  will 
be  helped  by  not  taking  himself  too  seriously,  and 
by  remembering  what  was  said  in  the  early  pages 
about  the  good  wishes  and  sympathy  of  the  aver- 
age audience  for  the  speaker.  At  all  events  every 
speaker  should  cultivate  geniality  as  a  habit. 
The  old  saw,  "Laugh  and  the  World  laughs  with 
you,"  has  been  most  profitably  drafted  into  ser- 
vice by  a  great  modern  business  corporation  in 
the  form,  "The  voice  with  the  smile  wins."  This 
idea  may  well  be  taken  to  heart  by  the  speaker. 
Severity  has  its  place  in  speaking;  anger  has  its 
place;  so  does  sarcasm;  but  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances cheerfulness,  optimism,  wholehearted- 
ness  are  what  make  for  charm. 

It  is  difficult  to  convey  the  impression  of  a 
speaker's  charm  in  mere  type;  the  warmth  with 
which  the  individual  invests  the  words  is  lost. 
But  as  we  read  the  works  of  a  man  like  Washing- 
ton Irving,  let  us  say,  we  feel  that  he  must  have 
had  a  sunny,  optimistic  attitude  toward  life. 
Similarly,  the  reader  will  note  in  the  following 
extract  from  a  speech  of  Dr.  John  H.  Finley  to  a 
class  of  college  students  graduating  in  February 
something  of  the  brightness  and  warmth  which 
makes  for  a  charming  personality. 


The  Personality  of  the  Speaker       145 

*'  To  the  men  of  February ,  igio: 

"  You  must  be  missing  this  week  the  traditional 
and  deHghtful  accompaniments  of  the  baccalau- 
reate ceremonies  which  your  June  brothers  know. 
The  laurel  is  not  in  berry.  The  oratorical  adage 
and  the  rhetorical  words  of  advice  are  not  in 
season.  The  city  about  is  not  thinking  of  vaca- 
tion and  rest,  of  mountains  and  seashore.  It  is 
at  work,  busy  even  in  its  play,  and  it  will  hardly 
look  up  to  make  place  for  you,  much  less  to  cele- 
brate your  entrance.  Your  laureatlon  must, 
therefore,  be  made  with  leaves  alone. 

"  But  I  want  to  help  you  to  feel  the  joy  of  the 
commencement  none  the  less,  though  you  gradu- 
ate near  the  winter  solstice  and  under  a  new  star 
and  a  new  sign  of  the  zodiac  (or,  as  Dante  put  it, 
when  the  '  fishes  are  quivering  on  your  horizon,' 
when  'the  sun  is  tempering  his  locks  beneath 
Aquarius  and  the  nights  arc  passing  to  the  south'). 
You  will  be  pioneers  of  the  new  traditions  in  the 
American  college  calendar,  and  I  wish  that  you 
may  make  them  happy  traditions.  The  ancients 
had  their  hicmal  garlands  as  well  as  aestlval  and 
w'hy  shall  we  not  make  our  winter  summer,  In 
the  celebration  of  our  hopes — which  have  no 
season — for  you  who  have  endured  our  disciplines 
and  are,  In  and  out  of  season,  to  represent  our 
faith  In  better  things? 

"  I  have  wished  many  times  during  the  last  three 


146     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

or  four  years  that  I  could  find  some  distinguishing 
name  for  you  who  go  out  in  winter,  when  one  has 
to  shake  the  snow  from  the  laurel  in  gathering 
even  the  leaves  for  your  graduation.  But  I  have 
thought  of  none  that  will  be  permanently  distinc- 
tive. In  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  your 
February  successors  will  some  day  (if  we  assume 
the  continuance  of  the  College  and  the  custom 
through  enough  centuries)  be  graduated  under 
the  star  and  zodiacal  sign  of  your  June  brothers 
and  you  under  theirs.  And  the  precession  of  our 
thoughts  traveling  more  quickly  over  this  cycle 
of  ten  thousand  years  sees  you  all  of  one  company 
and  under  one  star  and  sign." 

III.    Tact 

Finally,  one  of  the  most  potent  factors  of  charm 
is  tact.  This  quality  may  be  defined  as  the 
ability  to  say  the  right  thing  at  the  right  time, 
and,  what  is  even  more  important,  to  leave  unsaid 
that  which  would  be  unfortunate  under  given 
circumstances.  Like  most  of  the  qualities  pre- 
viously noted  in  this  chapter,  tact  is  likely  to  be 
observed  by  the  speaker  only  if  it  is  habitual  in 
his  relations  with  those  about  him.  A  person 
who  regularly  accepts  kindnesses  without  any 
sign  of  appreciation,  and  who  never  thinks  to 
express  pleasure  at  the  good-fortune,  or  solicitude 
concerning  the  ill-fortune  of  friends  and  acquaint- 


The  Personality  of  the  Speaker       147 

ances — such  a  person  lacks  tact.  It  is  likewise 
lacking  in  those  who  do  not  hesitate  to  ridicule 
the  defects,  shortcomings  or  misfortunes  of  their 
lellowmen.  These  tactless  people  are  likely  in 
public  address  to  omit  the  little  touches  which 
please,  and,  especially,  are  liable  to  blurt  out 
things  that  offend.  A  man  who  in  a  social  gather- 
ing will  refer  heartlessly  to  a  distorted  feature  or 
a  crippled  limb  is  in  danger  in  public  address  of 
speaking  with  purposeless  contempt  of  a  man 
who  has  friends  in  the  audience,  or  of  an  institu- 
tion which  numbers  staunch  supporters  among 
his  listeners.  The  tactful  speaker  will  not  do 
such  a  thing,  and  as  the  once  common  sign  put 
it,  "others  must  not." 

The  tactful  speaker's  characteristic  attitude 
will  be  one  which  interprets  acts  and  motives  in 
the  best  light,  consistent  with  the  facts;  he  will 
show  a  readiness  to  give  the  other  fellow  the  pro- 
verbial benefit  of  the  doubt.  He  will  avoid  the 
vulgar  phrase,  the  cynical  turn,  the  tone  of  ir- 
reverence in  speaking  of  things  which  some,  at 
least,  of  his  auditors  hold  in  esteem.  On  the 
positive  side,  whenever  he  can  do  so  without 
flattery,  he  will  indirectly  compliment  the  judg- 
ment, taste,  knowledge,  or  ability  of  his  listeners, 
or  in  some  other  unobtrusive  way  make  them 
feel  that  he  has  a  good  opinion  of  them.  Unob- 
trusiveness,  it  is  to  be  noted,  is  the  key-note  of 


148     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

tact;  anything  which  might  appear  glaring, 
forced,  or  awkward,  by  its  very  absence  shows 
tact. 

D.  Summary 

In  the  present  chapter,  self-confidence,  sin- 
cerity, and  charm  have  been  presented  as  the 
personal  qualities  most  desirable  in  the  speaker. 
In  the  discussion  of  the  first  quality,  it  was  pointed 
out  that  an  attack  of  timidity  is  often  due  merely 
to  a  fancied  inability  to  express  one's  thoughts,  or 
to  a  sudden  notion  that  one's  thoughts  are  com- 
mon-place. Such  causes  of  timidity  are  trivial 
weaknesses,  which  should  be  opposed  by  a  little 
show  of  determination.  To  provide  for  self- 
confidence  in  the  larger  sense,  broad  and  thought- 
ful reading,  and  careful,  appreciative  observation 
were  advocated.  Furthermore,  it  was  urged  that 
speakers  accustom  themselves  to  expressing  their 
thoughts  by  writing,  by  more  fully  developed 
conversations,  and  by  "thinking  aloud"  in  pri- 
vate. The  second  personal  quality,  sincerity, 
was  discussed  as  a  strong  convincing  and  per- 
suasive factor.  A  man  who  shows  by  his  words 
and  manner  that  he  believes  earnestly  what  he 
says  is  capable  of  securing  results  which  a  mere 
talker  or  poser  cannot  accomplish.  It  was  es- 
pecially emphasized  that  sincerity  in  speaking 
springs  from  sincerity  as  a  habitual  attitude  in 


The  Personality  of  the  Speaker       149 

everyday  life.  The  third  desirable  characteristic 
of  the  speaker  is  charm.  This  quality  was  analyzed 
as  consisting  chiefly  of:  (i)  modesty,  an  avoidance 
of  any  tinge  of  bluster  or  self-sufficiency;  (2) 
geniality,  which  connotes  openness,  cheerfulness, 
good-humor,  and  optimism;  and  (3)  tact,  which 
is  based  upon  a  habitually  sympathetic  attitude 
toward  one's  fellowmen,  and  an  ability  to  say 
the  right  thing  at  the  right  time,  and  to  avoid 
saying  anything  that  will  wound  or  offend. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE    SPEAKER'S    ATTITUDE    TOWARD    HIS 
SUBJECT 

From  the  essential  personal  qualities,  we  turn 
to  the  proper  attitude  of  the  speaker  toward  his 
subject.  This  attitude  should  be  characterized 
by  familiarity  with  the  subject-matter,  a  spirit 
of  fairness,  and  a  marked  degree  of  interest. 

A.  Familiarity  with  the  Subject 

In  order  to  secure  the  confidence  of  his  listeners, 
the  speaker  should  be  able  to  impress  them  that 
he  is  adequately  informed  about  the  topic  under 
consideration.  This  impression  must  not  be  con- 
veyed in  such  a  way  as  to  violate  the  principle  of 
modesty.  Of  course,  if  a  man's  travels  or  ex- 
periences have  fitted  him  particularly  to  present 
a  certain  subject,  it  is  entirely  within  the  bounds 
of  propriety  to  state,  in  opening,  the  opportuni- 
ties which  he  has  had.  Usually,  however,  the 
impression  of  mastery  should  come  as  an  inference 
on  the  part  of  the  audience.  This  will  be  the  case 
when   the   speaker  is   "full  of  his   subject."     In 

ISO 


The  Speaker  and  his  Subject         151 

that  event,  instead  of  giving  evidence  of  meager 
or  last-minute  preparation,  he  will  suggest  b^ 
his  sureness  of  procedure  and  his  amplitude  of 
material  that  he  knows  more  about  the  topic  than 
he  can  compass  into  the  limited  space  of  a  single 
address. 

Such  an  indication  of  mastery  depends  some- 
what upon  organization  of  the  general  plan,  the 
skillful  use  of  details,  examples,  illustrations;  in 
part  upon  the  self-confidence  of  the  speaker;  but 
it  depends  most  of  all  upon  the  thoroughness 
with  which  the  material  is  gathered  and  digested. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that,  other  things  being  equal, 
the  speakers  who  most  clearly  evince  mastery  of 
their  subjects  are  those  who  speak  from  personal 
experience.  Admiral  Peary  on  "Polar  Explora- 
tion," or  Miss  Jane  Addams  on  "Social  Service" 
immediately  gain  the  full  confidence  of  their 
hearers.  But  only  a  few  speeches,  relatively,  can 
be  made  from  personal  experience;  and  the  dis- 
advantage must  be  minimized  as  much  as  possible 
by  thoroughness  of  research.  The  more  exhaust- 
ively one  covers  the  best  that  has  been  written 
on  a  given  topic,  the  greater  is  one's  chance  of 
creating  the  impression  of  mastery  in  speaking. 
This  somewhat  obvious  statement  is  intended  as 
a  warning  to  those  who  would  attempt  to  make  a 
speech  by  paraphrasing  one  or  two  magazine 
articles.     While  such  a  thing  might  be  excusable 


152     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

if  occasion  called  for  an  impromptu  effort,  it  must 
ordinarily  be  evident  that  the  speaker  is  treating 
the  subject  superficially.  An  eclectic  collection 
of  material  is  essential  for  acquiring  that  mastery 
which  inspires  complete  confidence  on  the  part 
of  the  audience.  For  example,  if  a  person  is 
speaking  on  "Labor  Conditions  in  the  United 
States,"  It  is  desirable  for  him  to  know  not  only 
what  the  Commissioner  of  Labor  and  the  Immigra- 
tion Officials  report,  but  also  what  such  men  as 
Mr.  Gompers,  Mr.  Mitchell,  and  the  President 
of  the  Employers'  Association  have  to  say  on 
the  subject.  The  good  speaker  rarely  exhausts 
all  the  details  at  his  command,  but  It  Is  far  better 
to  be  able  to  select  the  most  desirable  from  an 
excess  of  material  than  to  be  under  the  necessity 
of  stretching  to  the  required  proportions  a  very 
limited  amount. 

B.  A  Spirit  of  Fairness 

Further,  with  regard  to  the  speaker's  attitude 
toward  his  subject,  he  should  be  Impelled  by  a 
spirit  of  fairness,  a  desire  to  arrive  at  the  truth  of 
the  matter.  This  is  another  reason  for  making 
an  unbiased  examination  of  sources:  neutral,  pro 
and  anti  when  the  topic  Is  of  an  argumentative 
nature;  or  emanating  from  different  attitudes  of 
mind  or  varying  points  of  view  when  the  subject 


The  Speaker  and  his  Subject         153 

is  of  a  descriptive,  narrative  or  expository  char- 
acter. Rarely  is  there  a  subject  of  any  great  im- 
portance concerning  which  the  facts  all  support 
one  view;  usually  a  conflict  is  involved,  although 
the  preponderance  of  evidence  may  lead  to  a 
more  or  less  decided  conclusion  in  favor  of  a  given 
view.  The  intelligent  audience  is  aware  of  this 
existence  of  conflicting  factors;  therefore,  not 
only  the  fair  speaker,  but  even  the  merely  skillful 
one,  does  not  attempt  to  hide  or  distort  those 
matters  which  seem  to  favor  a  conclusion  opposed 
to  his  own.  He  refutes  such  points  if  he  can;  and 
naturally  lays  particular  emphasis  upon  what  he 
considers  the  right  side  of  the  case.  But,  above 
all  things,  he  avoids  following  the  paths  of  preju- 
dice, trickery,  deception,  those  tortuous  byways 
which  lead  sooner  or  later  to  a  speaker's  undoing. 
There  has  been  of  late  in  the  business  world  a 
revival  of  interest  in  the  old  copy-book  maxim, 
"honesty  is  the  best  policy."  In  keeping  with 
the  materialistic  trend,  the  old  saying  now  ap- 
pears without  any  ambiguity  as,  "Honesty  pays." 
The  grocer  less  frequently  sells  storage  eggs  for 
fresh;  the  merchant  less  frequently  off^ers  to  the 
public  "twenty-five  dollar  suits  marked  down  to 
twelve-forty-nine."  Why?  Principally,  I  be- 
lieve, because  a  more  enlightened  and  self-assertive 
public  these  days  comes  back  once  and  for  all 
with  the  stale  eggs  and  the  supposedly  twenty-five 


154    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

dollar  suits.  It  is  this  same  enlightened  public 
that  listens  to  speakers,  whether  in  convention 
halls  or  on  street  corners.  And  if  you  or  I,  stand- 
ing In  a  pulpit  or  on  an  up-turned  barrel,  attempt 
to  secrete  or  distort  essential  matters,  we  do  it 
in  the  face  of  intelligent  persons  who  are  con- 
stantly checking  up,  either  silently  or  with  loud 
and  very  disconcerting  voices,  the  exaggerations, 
the  vital  omissions,  the  misrepresentations,  and 
other  "cold-storage"  features  of  our  speeches. 
Any  student  who  doubts  the  soundness  of  this 
statement  has  but  to  listen  to  a  few  political  cam- 
paigners, or  attend  a  so-called  forum,  after  which 
he  will  agree  that  fair  dealing  pays  in  speaking  as 
well  as  in  business.  The  following  extract  from 
a  speech  of  Ex-Governor  Hughes  Is  such  an  ad- 
mirable and  suggestive  illustration  of  fairness  and 
open-mlndedness  that  I  venture  to  quote  at  some 
length. 

"The  typical  American  does  not  seek  idleness 
but  work.  He  wants  to  justify  himself  by  proved 
capacity  in  useful  effort.  Under  different  condi- 
tions he  still  has  the  spirit  of  those  who  faced  the 
wilderness,  advanced  the  outposts  of  civilization, 
and  settled  a  continent  of  matchless  resources, 
where  has  been  laid  the  basis  for  a  wider  diffusion 
of  prosperity  among  a  greater  population  than 
the  world  has  ever  known. 

"To  whatever  department  of  activity  we  may 


The  Speaker  and  his  Subject         155 

turn,  after  making  all  necessary  allowances  for 
ignorance,  shiftlessness  and  vice,  we  still  find 
throughout  the  country,  dominant  and  persuasive, 
the  note  of  energy  and  resistless  ambition.  The 
vitality  of  the  people  has  not  been  sapped  by  pros- 
perity. The  increase  of  comfort  has  not  impaired 
their  virility.  We  are  still  a  hardy  people,  equal 
to  our  task,  and  pressing  forward  vigorous  and 
determined  in  every  direction  to  enlarge  the  record 
of  achievement. 

"  It  is  easy,  looking  at  phases  of  our  life  in  an 
absolute  way,  for  one  who  is  pessimistically  in- 
clined to  gather  statistics  which  superficially  con- 
sidered are  discouraging.  Congestion  in  our  great 
cities,  the  widened  opportunity  for  the  play  of 
selfishness,  and  the  increase  of  temptations  fol- 
lowing in  the  wake  of  prosperity,  give  rise  to  an 
appalling  number  and  variety  of  private  and  public 
wrongs  whose  thousands  of  victims  voice  an  un- 
dying appeal  to  humanity  and  patriotism. 

"  But  one  would  form  a  very  inaccurate  judg- 
ment of  our  moral  condition  by  considering  these 
wrongs  alone.  They  must  be  considered  in  their 
relation  to  other  phases  of  our  life.  We  must  not 
fail  to  take  note  of  the  increasing  intensity  of  the 
desire  to  find  remedies  and  the  earnestness  with 
which  all  forms  of  evil  and  oppression  are  at- 
tacked. 

"  Considering   the   tremendous   Increase   in  the 


156    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

opportunities  for  wrongdoing,  the  seductive  and 
refined  temptations,  and  the  materiaHstic  appeals 
that  are  incident  to  our  present  mode  of  life,  and 
the  material  comforts  which  invention  and  com- 
merce have  made  possible,  I  believe  that  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  ethical  development  of  the  people 
has  kept  pace  with  their  progress  in  other  direc- 
tions may  fairly  be  called  extraordinary. 

"  In  saying  this,  I  am  not  at  all  unmindful  of 
how  far  short  we  come  of  an  ideal  state  of  society. 
On  the  contrary,  existing  evils  are  the  more  no- 
ticeable, because  they  stand  out  in  strong  con- 
trast to  the  desires  and  aspirations  of  the  people. 
We  have  had  disclosures  of  shocking  infidelity  to 
trust  and  to  public  obligation,  but  more  important 
than  the  evil  disclosed  was  the  attitude  of  the 
people  toward  it.  Individual  shortcomings  are 
many,  but  the  moral  judgment  of  the  community 
is  keen  and  severe. 

"  To-day  the  American  people  are  more  alive  to 
the  importance  of  Impartial  and  honorable  ad- 
ministration than  ever  before.  They  do  not  sim- 
ply discuss  it;  they  demand  it.  While  in  many 
communities  administration  is  controlled  In  the 
selfish  interest  of  a  few  to  the  detriment  of  the 
people,  that  which  Is  more  characteristic  of  our 
present  political  life  is  the  determination  that 
selfish  abuse  of  governmental  machinery  shall 
stop. 


The  Speaker  and  his  Subject         157 

"  Let  there  be  no  vague  fears  about  the  outcome. 
I  place  full  confidence  in  the  sobriety  and  in- 
tegrity of  motive  of  the  American  people.  I  have 
profound  belief  in  their  ability  to  cure  existing 
evils  without  disturbing  their  prosperity.  I  am 
convinced  that  we  shall  have  mors  and  more 
intelligent  and  unselfish  representation  of  the 
people's  interests:  that  political  leadership  will 
be  tested  more  and  more  by  the  soundness  of  its 
counsel  and  the  disinterestedness  of  its  ambition. 

"  I  believe  that  with  an  increasing  proportion  of 
true  representation,  with  increasing  discriminating 
public  discussion,  with  the  patient  application 
of  sound  judgment  to  the  consideration  of  public 
measures,  and  with  the  inflexible  determination 
to  end  abuses  and  to  purify  the  administration 
of  government  of  self-interest,  we  shall  realize  a 
greater  prosperity  and  a  wider  difi'usion  of  the 
blessing  of  free  government  than  we  have  hitherto 
been  able  to  enjoy." 

C.  A  Marked  Degree  of  Interest 

Finally,  the  attitude  of  the  speaker  toward  his 
subject  should  be  characterized  by  a  marked 
degree  of  interest.  I  would  say  enthusiasm  were 
I  not  aware  that  such  a  requirement  is  rather 
more  than  can  be  reasonably  expected  for  all  sub- 
jects and  occasions.  A  given  speaker  may  be 
enthusiastic  in  urging  independence  for  the  Phil- 


158     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

ipplnes,  but  very  rightly  feel  much  less  intense 
when  explaining  the  topography  of  the  State  of 
South  Dakota — or  even  vice  versa.  Whatever 
the  subject,  however,  and  whatever  the  occasion, 
interest  at  least  must  be  shown.  The  degree  will 
naturally  vary  with  the  conditions  and  the  speak- 
er's inclinations,  but  it  is  impossible  for  an  unin- 
terested speaker  to  keep  an  audience  attentive  in 
the  real  sense. 

From  what  has  just  been  said  it  might  appear 
that  most  men  can  speak  effectively  on  only  a 
very  restricted  number  of  topics.  This  is  not  the 
case.  Our  limited  interests  are  in  great  part  due 
to  our  limited  knowledge.  If  Messrs.  A,  B  and  C 
are  interested  in  astronomy,  let  us  say,  and  Mr.  D 
is  not  at  all  concerned  about  the  subject,  it  is 
very  probably  because  he  knows  nothing  about 
it.  To  be  sure,  the  person  is  rare  who  can  experi- 
ence a  real  hearty  interest  in  everything  he  in- 
vestigates. We  are  not  all  Lord  Bacons,  who, 
unless  I  am  mistaken,  took  the  whole  of  human 
knowledge  as  his  province.  But  our  capacity  for 
interest  in  many  things  is  greater  than  we  com- 
monly suppose.  The  fact  is  that  most  people 
have  certain  material  interests  centering  about 
food,  raiment,  shelter  and  health;  and  other  more 
or  less  circumscribed  interests  of  the  spirit  asso- 
ciated with  entertainment,  social  intercourse  and 
home.     Owing  to  obsession  by  these,  or  to  sheer 


The  Speaker  and  his  Subject         159 

inertia,  a  great  many  people  do  not  broaden  their 
horizon.  It  is  not  that  they  are  incapable  of 
interest  in  the  fields  of  art,  literature,  music, 
science,  history,  etc.,  but  that  they  make  no 
attempt  to  arouse  it.  Occasionally  a  student 
comes  to  me  with  the  plaint  that  he  cannot  speak 
on  any  topic  in  an  assigned  list  because  he  does 
not  happen  to  be  interested  in  any  of  them.  He 
is  partly  right;  he  should  not  speak  upon  a  topic 
in  which  he  has  no  interest.  But  this  student  is 
often  led  to  see  that  it  might  be  well  to  acquire 
a  new  interest,  and  this  alternative  solution  to 
his  problem  not  infrequently  produces  a  good 
speech. 

If,  therefore,  occasion  calls  upon  a  person  for 
an  address  on  an  unfamiliar  topic  which  has  not 
hitherto  attracted  his  interest,  he  should  not  dis- 
miss the  opportunity  before  carefully  examining 
the  subject.  It  may  open  an  alluring  vista.  He 
must  be  satisfied  about  that  before  speaking, 
however,  for  he  is  under  the  necessity  of  interest- 
ing his  hearers,  and  he  cannot  hope  to  do  that 
unless  he  is  himself  concerned.  The  greater  the 
intensity  of  interest  felt,  whether  due  to  personal 
associations  in  the  field,  to  former  research,  or  to 
new  investigations,  the  more  spirited  will  be  the 
organization,  the  composition  and  the  delivery. 
And  this  vitality,  inspired  by  interest,  goes  far 
toward  making  a  speech  effective  in  its  appeal. 


l6o     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

D.  Summary 

With  reference  to  the  speaker's  attitude  toward 
his  subject,  this  chapter  has  pointed  out  three 
things.  First,  he  should  show  thorough  famiharity 
with  the  material  which  he  assumes  to  discuss. 
This  familiarity  is  best  acquired  by  personal  ex- 
perience in  the  field  under  consideration,  but 
since  that  is .  usually  impossible,  the  speaker 
should  cover  secondary  sources  of  information  in 
as  exhaustive  a  manner  as  circumstances  permit. 
By  consulting  a  representative  array  of  sources, 
he  is  able  to  select  the  best,  most  trustworthy 
material  for  his  address.  Secondly,  it  was  urged 
that  the  speaker  approach  his  subject  in  a  spirit 
of  fairness,  which  takes  due  note  of  the  existence 
of  conflicting  views.  He  will  thus  be  in  a  position 
to  refute,  to  disarm  criticism;  and  though  he  will, 
naturally,  emphasize  the  position  which  he  up- 
holds, he  should  under  no  circumstances  resort 
to  deception,  misrepresentation  or  any  kind  of 
trickery.  It  was  further  shown  that  the  com- 
mercial slogan,  "Honesty  pays,"  applies  to  speak- 
ing as  well  as  to  business.  Lastly,  the  speaker 
was  advised  of  the  necessity  of  showing  a  marked 
degree  of  interest  in  the  subject  he  is  presenting. 
The  amount  of  interest  will  vary  with  subjects 
and  conditions,  but  the  nearer  it  approaches  to 
enthusiasm  in  any  given  instance,  the  more  in- 


The  Speaker  and  his  Subject         i6i 

fluence,  ordinarily,  will  be  exerted  upon  an  au- 
dience. In  this  connection  it  was  pointed  out 
that  our  interests  can  be  materially  broadened  by- 
investigation,  and  that  public  speaking  affords 
a  stimulating  incentive  to  that  end. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE    SPEAKER'S    ATTITUDE    TOWARD    HIS 
AUDIENCE 

A.  Alertness 

The  first  point  to  be  noted  with  reference  to 
the  speaker's  attitude  toward  his  audience  is 
alertness,  constant  watchfulness  to  detect  the 
effect  of  his  words,  and  as  far  as  possible  to  antici- 
pate the  probable  reactions  to  what  he  has  planned 
to  say,  in  order  that  modifications  may  be  made 
if  necessary.  This  ability  to  profit  by  the  varying 
responses  of  an  audience  is  one  of  the  distinguish- 
ing differences  between  a  good  speaker  and  a 
mediocre  or  poor  one.  The  mediocre  speaker 
plans  exactly  what  he  intends  to  say  and  goes 
through  it  whether  his  listeners  understand  or 
not,  whether  they  approve  or  disapprove.  The 
good  speaker,  on  the  contrary,  seeing  a  puzzled 
look  here  and  there,  proceeds  to  elaborate,  or  to 
express  the  unclear  idea  in  a  more  simple  manner, 
or  to  furnish  an  illuminating  example.  He  catches 
a  glimpse  of  frowning  faces,  and  he  endeavors  to 
strengthen   his   position,  or  justly  to  qualify  an 

162 


The  Speaker  and  his  Audience       163 

assertion  until  the  frowns  have  disappeared.  If 
he  sees  indications  of  Hstlessness,  he  freshens 
his  discourse  with  a  bit  of  humor,  a  narrative,  a 
striking  concrete  example,  or  a  marked  change  in 
his  voice  modulations.  Noticing  pleased  faces 
and  nods  of  approval,  he  follows  up  his  advantage 
by  driving  home  with  extra  force  a  point  that 
especially  enlists  the  support  of  his  audience. 

If  ever  there  was  a  time  when  speakers  could 
afford  to  take  into  consideration  only  the  subject- 
matter  and  their  own  views  in  interpreting  it  to 
others,  that  time  is  past.  To-day,  the  attitude 
of  the  audience  is  a  factor  to  be  reckoned  with. 
It  is  not  alone  what  the  man  on  the  platform 
thinks  and  feels  that  counts,  but  also  the  inter- 
play between  that  and  the  thoughts  and  feelings 
of  the  auditors.  For  this  reason,  the  practical 
speaker  in  action  needs,  in  addition  to  all  that  he 
can  learn  beforehand  about  an  audience,  a  seeing 
eye  and  flexibility  in  handling  his  subject-matter. 

B.  Friendliness 

We  may  next  consider  friendliness  as  a  de- 
sirable characteristic  of  the  speaker's  attitude 
toward  his  audience.  Some  men  appear  to  con- 
sider their  listeners  in  the  light  of  tacit  opponents 
or,  what  is  quite  as  inapt,  school-children.  The 
chief  error?    underlying   these   attitudes   may   be 


164    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

pointed  out  in  order  to  help  the  student  avoid 
them.  The  first,  and  most  difficult  to  overcome, 
is  a  habitually  disputatious  nature;  the  second  is 
a  mistaken  idea  that  an  audience  can  be  driven 
or  coerced  into  an  acceptance  of  the  speaker's 
views;  the  third  is  an  unfortunate  delusion  that 
timidity  can  be  concealed  by  a  great  display  of 
aggressiveness.  The  speaker  should  earnestly 
combat  these  errors  if  he  is  guilty  of  any  of  them, 
for  their  resultant  attitudes,  as  noted  above,  are 
very  undesirable.  Occasionally  a  person  knows 
that  he  is  to  address  those  who  are  hostile.  In 
such  an  event,  instead  of  avoiding  the  friendly 
attitude,  especial  pains  should  ordinarily  be  taken 
to  observe  it.  An  angry  audience,  like  an  angry 
man,  is  not  appeased  or  mollified  by  a  show  of 
fists,  literal  or  figurative.  However,  most  au- 
diences are  inclined  to  be  well-disposed  toward  a 
speaker  unless  he,  himself,  arouses  a  spirit  of 
opposition. 

To  make  the  most  of  this  favorable  disposition, 
how  ought  the  speaker  to  act.^  Nothing  could  be 
more  simple.  He  should  speak  in  the  quiet,  sincere 
manner  of  one  who  talks  to  equals,  thoughtful 
persons  like  himself,  all  desiring  to  enter  into  a 
friendly  discussion  of  which  he  happens  to  be  the 
leader.  No  threats,  no  denunciations,  no  implica- 
tions of  ignorance,  no  insinuations  of  ulterior  mo- 
tives on  the  part  of  the  auditors — just  the  open 


The  Speaker  and  his  Audience       165 

expression  of  one  well-wishing  person  to  others 
whose  reciprocal  good  wishes  he  takes  for  granted. 
The  majority  of  addresses  will  proceed  on  such  a 
basis,  but  occasionally  the  task  of  speaking  in- 
volves more  severe  aspects.  Well,  when  an  au- 
dience is  won  in  the  early  phases  by  friendly 
treatment,  the  speaker  is  in  a  position  to  carry 
his  listeners  with  him  in  viewing  even  their  own 
shortcomings  without  asperity,  because  they  feel 
assured  that  the  criticism  comes  from  a  friendly 
person  and  not  a  hostile  detractor.  Observe  the 
note  of  friendliness  in  the  following  passage  from 
a  speech  of  Mr.  John  D.  Rockefeller,  Jr.,  before 
the  employees  of  the  Colorado  Fuel  and  Iron 
Company. 

"This  is  a  red-letter  day  in  my  life.  It  is  the 
first  time  I  have  ever  had  the  good  fortune  to 
meet  the  representatives  of  the  employees  of  this 
great  company,  its  officers  and  mine  superin- 
tendents, together,  and  I  can  assure  you  that  I 
am  proud  to  be  here,  and  that  I  shall  remember 
this  gathering  as  long  as  I  live.  Had  this  meeting 
been  held  two  weeks  ago,  I  should  have  stood 
here  as  a  stranger  to  many  of  you,  recognizing 
few  faces.  Having  had  the  opportunity  last  week 
of  visiting  all  of  the  camps  In  the  southern  coal 
fields  and  of  talking  individually  with  practically 
all  of  the  representatives,  except  those  who  were 
away;  having  visited  in  your  homes,  met  many 


l66    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

of  your  wives  and  children,  we  meet  here  not  as 
strangers  but  as  friends,  and  it  is  in  that  spirit  of 
mutual  friendship  that  I  am  glad  to  have  this  op- 
portunity to  discuss  with  you  men  our  common 
interests.  Since  this  is  a  meeting  of  the  officers 
of  the  company  and  the  representatives  of  the 
employees,  it  is  only  by  your  courtesy  that  I  am 
here,  for  I  am  not  so  fortunate  as  to  be  either  one 
or  the  other;  and  yet  I  feel  that  I  am  intimately 
associated  with  you  men,  for  in  a  sense  I  represent 
both  the  stockholders  and  the  directors.  Before 
speaking  of  the  plan  of  industrial  representation 
to  which  our  president  has  referred,  I  want  to 
say  just  a  few  words  outlining  my  views  as  to 
what  different  interests  constitute  a  company  or 
corporation." 

C.  The  Will  to  Convince  and  Persuade 

The  third  feature  which  should  mark  the  speak- 
er's attitude  toward  his  audience  is  the  will  to 
convince  and  persuade.  It  is  one  thing  to  possess 
ideas  and  beliefs  and  to  have  perfect  confidence 
In  them;  It  is  quite  another  thing  to  feel  a  deter- 
mination to  inspire  others  with  these  ideas  and 
beliefs.  Some  people  are  wholly  content  to 
cherish  their  own  convictions  without  even  stat- 
ing, to  say  nothing  of  propagating,  them.  Such 
an  attitude  will  not  do  for  the  man  who  speaks  In 
public.    He  cannot  speak  effectively  if  he  says,  in 


The  Speaker  and  his  Audience        167 

effect,  "These  are  my  ideas  on  the  subject;  you 
may  accept  them  or  not  as  you  choose,"  On  the 
contrary,  he  must  have  a  keen  desire  that  his 
views  be  accepted,  and  what  is  more,  a  will  that 
they  be  accepted.  This  means  that  when  he 
stands  before  his  auditors  he  must  constantly 
direct  his  efforts  so  to  set  forth  information,  to 
clarify,  to  remove  objections,  to  please,  to  appeal 
to  vital  motives,  to  inspire  as  to  induce  acquies- 
cence. Behind  his  descriptions,  his  anecdotes, 
his  facts,  his  generalizations,  lies  that  dominant 
purpose.  The  very  fact  that  such  a  worthy  ambi- 
tion exists  will  help,  on  the  one  hand,  to  sub- 
merge hampering  thoughts  of  self,  and  on  the 
other  hand,  to  make  the  expression  of  thoughts 
and  feelings  vital  and  attractive.  No  matter, 
therefore,  whether  the  speaker  wishes  to  get  an 
adoption  of  text-books  for  a  publishing  house,  a 
contribution  for  infirm  inebriates,  an  acquittal 
for  a  client,  or  an  agreement  that  Shaw  is  not  an 
imitator  of  Ibsen,  he  should  go  before  his  listeners 
with  the  spirit  that  wins — the  determination  to 
carry  them  with  him. 

D.  A  Spirit  of  Helpfulness 

The  will  to  persuade  and  convince  has  just 
been  referred  to  as  a  "worthy  ambition."  In 
justifying  this  expression,  we  are  concerned  with 
the  final  factor  involved  in  the  attitude  of  the 


l68     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

speaker  toward  his  audience:  a  desire  to  benefit 
those  to  whom  he  speaks,  or  to  advance  a  worthy 
cause.  It  is  quite  possible  that  in  many  cases  the 
inexperienced  speaker  will  get  from  his  early  ef- 
forts the  chief  benefits,  but  that  might  be  said 
about  an  embryo  surgeon  or  a  tyro  in  the  legal 
practice.  Another  admission  which  may  be  dis- 
closed without  hesitation  is  that,  in  general,  the 
more  a  speaker  benefits  his  listeners,  the  more 
credit  redounds  to  himself.  So,  just  as  honesty 
pays  in  speaking,  helpfulness  pays.  In  fact,  the 
main  point  in  this  discussion  is  to  emphasize  the 
idea  that  the  man  who  speaks  because  he  desires 
to  perform  a  service  rather  than  to  glorify  him- 
self is  not  only  altruistic,  he  is  also  wise.  If  sin- 
cerely actuated  by  the  former  motive,  he  is  much 
more  likely  to  be  free  from  the  speech  shortcom- 
ings which  arise  from  attempts  to  make  a  personal 
"hit."  Nervousness,  .stilted  language  and  con- 
struction, forced  humor,  an  efi"ect  of  insincerity, 
and  other  faults  tend  to  characterize  the  self- 
centered  speaker.  On  the  contrary,  a  person 
who  feels  a  desire  to  inform,  to  point  out  mis- 
takes, to  indicate  advantages,  or  to  enlist  sup- 
port for  a  good  cause  tends  toward  the  simple, 
attractive,  convincing,  and  natural  style  of  ad- 
dress which  has  been  urged  throughout  this  book. 
To  secure  for  himself  these  advantages  and  to 
confer  upon  others  the  benefits  of  helpful  address, 


The  Speaker  and  his  Audience        169 

the  speaker  needs  to  sympathize  with  his  au- 
dience. When  he  is  talking  to  those  whose  point 
of  view  is  the  same  as  his  own,  the  sympathetic 
attitude  is  comparatively  easy.  But  when,  be- 
cause of  dissimilarity  in  education,  political  or 
religious  convictions,  material  interests,  or  social 
status,  the  speaker's  viewpoint  differs  from  that 
of  his  audience, — then  arises  the  necessity  for  a 
sympathy  more  rarely  experienced.  This,  which 
we  call  comprehensive  sympathy,  requires,  not 
that  the  speaker  should  think  as  do  his  listeners, 
but  that  he  should  understand  and  appreciate 
why  they  think  as  they  do.  Occasions  thus  call- 
ing upon  a  person  to  view  matters  from  a  point 
of  view  diflFering  from  his  own  are  not  uncommon. 
And  it  is  distinctly  to  his  advantage  to  cultivate 
the  broad  sympathies  which  enable  him  to  do 
this.  A  prosperous  man  who  can,  with  fellow- 
feeling,  see  the  situation  of  a  group  of  disgruntled 
dock-laborers  as  these  dock-laborers  see  it  them- 
selves, a  Free-trader  who  can  really  appreciate 
the  viewpoint  of  a  Protectionist  audience — such 
a  man  is  in  a  favorable  position  to  lead  his  lis- 
teners toward  the  view  which  he  considers  best 
for  them.  The  ability  to  see  things  from  the 
"other  fellow's"  viewpoint  is  illustrated  in  this 
brief  extract  from  another  of  Mr.  Rockefeller's 
addresses. 

"In  order  to   live,   the   wage-earner  must   sell 


lyo     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

his  labor  from  day  to  day.  Unless  he  can  do  this, 
the  earnings  from  that  day's  labor  are  gone  for- 
ever. Capital  can  defer  its  returns  temporarily  in 
the  expectation  of  future  profits,  but  labor  can- 
not. If,  therefore,  fair  wages  and  reasonable  liv- 
ing conditions  cannot  otherwise  be  provided,  divi- 
dends must  be  deferred  or  the  industry  abandoned. 
I  believe  that  a  corporation  should  be  deemed  to 
consist  of  its  stockholders,  directors,  officers  and 
employees;  that  the  real  interests  of  all  are  one, 
and  that  neither  labor  nor  capital  can  permanently 
prosper  unless  the  just  rights  of  both  are  con- 
served." 

E.  Summary 

To  sum  up  briefly,  we  have  seen  that  the  speak- 
er's attitude  should  be  characterized,  first,  by  a 
watchfulness  which  enables  him  to  take  advan- 
tage of  the  visible  effects  of  his  words.  This 
advantage,  it  was  further  observed,  involves  the 
speaker's  ability  to  adjust  his  presentation  to 
meet  the  varying  responses  of  an  audience.  The 
second  requisite  is  friendliness.  The  speaker  was 
cautioned  against  the  domineering  attitude,  which 
springs  from  a  disputatious  nature,  or  from  the 
false  idea  that  an  audience  can  be  coerced,  or  is 
unfortunately  adopted  as  a  mask  for  timidity. 
On  the  contrary,  he  was  advised  to  use  the  quiet, 
frank  expression  of  a  well-wishing  person  in  dis- 


The  Speaker  and  his  Audience        171 

cussion  with  his  friends  and  peers.  A  will  to 
convince  and  persuade  the  audience  was  the  next 
characteristic  advocated.  It  was  noted  that  the 
indifferent  attitude  would  not  accomplish  the 
desired  results,  but  that  the  speaker  would  be 
helped  to  achieve  his  aims  by  a  constant  underly- 
ing determination  to  carry  his  audience  with  him. 
Helpfulness,  the  final  factor  of  the  attitude  in 
question,  was  presented  as  a  quality  which  is  no 
less  beneficial  to  the  speaker  than  to  the  auditors. 
The  undesirable  results  of  aiming  at  self-glorifica- 
tion were  pointed  out,  and  the  speaker  was  ad- 
vised to  profit  by  forgetting  himself  in  a  desire  to 
help  those  addressed.  As  an  aid  in  accomplishing 
this  end  most  effectively,  he  was  urged  to  culti- 
vate broad  sympathies  with  those  who  for  various 
reasons  hold  views  differing  from  his  own. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  \'OICE  FACTOR 

A  person  may  fulfill  admirably  the  intellectual 
and  emotional  requirements  discussed  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapters  and  still  fall  short  of  the  best  re- 
sults in  speaking  if  the  voice  is  not  properly 
used.  The  student  may  be  assured  at  the  outset, 
however,  that  for  purposes  of  practical  speaking 
the  normal  voice  does  not  require  a  special  course 
of  training.  If  the  speaker  has  time  and  oppor- 
tunity for  a  course  which  will  rapidly  strengthen 
and  purify  his  tones,  so  much  the  better,  but, 
fortunately,  successful  speaking  does  not  demand 
it.  What  is  needed  is  the  improvement  resulting 
from  careful,  intelligent  and  purposeful  use  of  the 
voice  which  the  average  person  possesses.  To 
put  it  specifically,  the  speaker  must  aim  at  three 
things:  (i)  to  pronounce  correctly;  (2)  to  speak 
distinctly;  and  (3)  to  modulate  the  voice  with  a 
view  to  a  pleasing,  clear,  and  forceful  expression 
of  thought  and  feeling.  Let  us  consider  these 
points  in  detail. 

172 


The  Voice  Factor  173 

A.  Pronunciation 

The  public  speaker  should  be  careful  about  his 
pronunciation  for  two  reasons,  mainly:  first,  be- 
cause faulty  pronunciation  tends  to  lessen  one 
of  his  important  assets,  the  respect  and  confidence 
of  the  audience;  secondly,  because  mistakes  are 
very  apt  to  distract  attention,  even  to  the  extent 
of  causing  some  members  of  the  audience  to 
ponder  upon  the  faults  while  the  speaker  proceeds 
with  the  development  of  the  topic.  The  faults 
most  commonly  observed  may  be  classified  as 
follows : 

1.  Using  a  wrong  consonant  sound,  as  in  "ges- 

ture," pronounced  with  a  hard  instead  of 
a  soft  "g";  or  "chasm,"  pronounced  with 
a  "ch"  instead  of  a"  k." 

2.  Mistaking  vowel  quality,  as  in  "writhe,"  pro- 

nounced with  a  short  instead  of  a  long  "i." 

3.  Interpolating  sounds,  as  in  "electorial"  for 

"electoral";  or  "athaletic"  for  "ath- 
letic." 

4.  Sounding  silent  elements,  such  as  the  "b" 

in  "subtle,"  or  the  "i"  in  "business." 

5.  Omitting  sounds,  such  as  the  "n"  in  "gov- 

ernment." 

6.  Misplacing  accent,  as  in  the  case  of  "super- 

flu'ous"    for    "supcr'fluous,"    or    "incom- 


174    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

par'able"  for  "incom'parable,"  or  "con- 
trast" (verb)  for  "contrast'."  * 

In  some  cases  we  mispronounce  words  without 
being  aware  of  the  errors.  Having  no  uncertainty 
about  these  words,  we  are  not  hkely  to  make  cor- 
rections. From  this  fact  it  is  clear  that  the  speaker 
will  do  well  to  keep  checking  up  his  pronunciation 
by  listening  attentively  to  those  who  use  the 
language  admirably,  and  to  appeal  to  the  dic- 
tionary whenever  he  notes  a  pronunciation  which 
varies  from  his  own.  Sometimes  we  feel  more 
or  less  uncertain  about  words  which  we  mispro- 
nounce; we  are  not  sure,  perhaps,  whether  it  is 
"ab'domen"  or  "abdo'men,"  whether  "chiropo- 
dist" is  pronounced  with  a  "k"  or  an  "sh."  With 
uncertainty  as  a  fair  warning,  there  is  no  excuse 
for  continuing  to  mispronounce  the  words  in 
question.  * 

There  remains  a  cause  of  wrong  pronunciation 
which  can  be  obviated  without  the  dictionary, 
but  which  needs  quite  as  careful  attention  as  the 
faults  previously  mentioned.  This  cause  is  care- 
lessness in  the  formation  of  the  vowel  sounds.  It 
results    in     such    indistinct    pronunciation    that 

*  A  very  useful  rule  for  pronouncing  dissyllables  which 
have  the  same  spelling  for  the  verb  and  the  noun  is  that 
usually  the  verb  has  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable,  and  the 
noun  on  the  first. 


The  Voice  Factor  175 

words  differing  only,  or  chiefly,  in  the  vowel,  like 
"bet,"  "bat,"  "bit,"  "but,"  are  often  indistin- 
guishable. The  speaker  who  is  guilty  of  this 
shortcoming  should  lose  no  time  in  ridding  him- 
self of  a  fault  which  is  so  exasperating  to  the  lis- 
tener, and  at  the  same  time  so  inexcusable. 


B.  The  Question  of  Indistinctness 

Indistinctness  as  manifested  in  pronunciation 
is  only  one  of  several  forms  of  indistinct  speaking. 
And  since  a  prime  requisite  of  good  address  is 
that  the  speaker's  words — all  of  them — be  easily 
and  clearly  heard  by  the  audience,  we  shall  con- 
sider the  various  causes  of  failure  to  speak  plainly. 

I.  Running  Words  Together  ' 

Running  words  together,  or  indistinct  separa- 
tion, Is  one  of  these  causes.  Some  of  my  readers 
may  remember  the  following  old  example,  which 
fits  the  case  in  point.  A  school-mistress  asked 
one  of  her  little  boys  to  read  from  the  black-board 
the  sentence  "This  is  a  worm;  do  not  step  on  it." 
What  she  heard  in  reply  was  "This  is  a  warm 
doughnut  step  on  It."  Such  a  failure  to  separate 
words  properly  Is  not  an  uncommon  fault  with 
speakers,  although  very  readily  corrected  with  a 
little  attention.     Most  cases  of  indistinct  scpara- 


176     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

tion  of  words  can  be  obviated  by  speaking  with  a 
more  moderate  rate. 


II.  Speaking  in  the  Throat 

Another  source  of  indistinctness  is  talking  in 
the  throat,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  suggestively  ex- 
pressed, "swallowing  one's  words."  This  fault 
is  due  in  many  instances  to  a  complete  lack  of 
interest  in  the  subject  which  the  speaker  is  dis- 
cussing. For  this  or  other  reasons  he  confines 
his  effort  mainly  to  the  mere  vocalizing  process, 
and  does  not  raise  the  tone  into  the  resonating 
cavities,  nor  articulate  distinctly.  If  a  man  as- 
sumes to  address  the  public,  he  must  "speak  up" 
and  not  gurgle. 

III.  Speaking  with  the  Mouth  Closed 

A  cause  of  indistinctness  more  common,  per- 
haps, than  the  last  mentioned  is  the  failure  to 
"speak  out."  I  refer  to  the  habit  of  speaking 
with  the  lips  almost  closed.  In  listening  to  speak- 
ers even  as  far  removed  from  vaudeville  as  the 
pulpit,  one  might  sometimes  think  that  they  were 
practicing  ventriloquism.  It  is  impossible  for 
words  to  carry  if  held  back  by  the  teeth  and  lips. 
A  speaker  who  wants  his  audience  to  hear  easily 
should  notice  how  much  more  clearness  and  carry- 


The  Voice  Factor  177 

ing  power  words   have  when  vowels  are  uttered 
with  an  open  mouth. 

IV.  Faulty  Articulation 

Probably  the  most  significant  cause  of  indis- 
tinct speech  is  inaccurate  formation  of  the  con- 
sonant sounds,  commonly  known  as  faulty  ar- 
ticulation. In  rare  cases  this  is  due  to  a  defective 
formation  of  the  lips,  teeth,  tongue  or  palate. 
Such  a  defect  can  in  many  instances  be  remedied 
by  dental  or  surgical  treatment.  Occasionally 
the  fault  arises  from  an  absolutely  incorrect  plac- 
ing of  the  lips,  teeth  or  tongue  in  making  a  given 
consonant.  This  is  instanced  in  the  lisp,  which 
is  usually  caused  by  letting  the  tip  of  the  tongue 
slip  between  the  teeth  instead  of  turning  it  up 
just  behind  them  in  producing  the  "s"  sound. 
Many  of  the  so-called  dialect  errors,  likewise, 
arise  from  this  wrong  idea  of  how  the  sounds 
should  be  produced.  The  German,  for  example, 
is  likely  to  say  "vill"  for  "will  "  or  the  Chinaman 
to  say  "lice"  for  "rice,"  because  the  former  puts 
his  lips,  and  the  latter  his  tongue,  in  an  absolutely 
wrong  position.  But  all  such  cases  are  excep- 
tional; the  cause  of  the  alarming  amount  of  poor 
articulation  is  sheer  carelessness.  The  German  • 
student  works  for  weeks  or  months  to  get  just 
the  right  forward   thrust  of  the  lips  to  produce 


1 78     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

our  "w"  sound;  the  persistent  Chinaman  de- 
velops the  muscle  of  his  tongue  in  the  transforma- 
tion of  "lice"  into  "rice."  But  the  vast  ma- 
jority of  our  own  speakers  who  exhaust  the  ears 
and  patience  of  audiences  with  their  mumbled 
words  could,  if  asked  to  repeat  any  sentence,  ar- 
ticulate with  perfect  distinctness. 

With  these  people  it  Is  not  a  question  of  organic 
defect,  nor  of  absolute  misplacements  of  the  organs 
of  articulation;  they  are  easily  able  to  make  every 
consonant  sound.  But  in  their  habitual  manner 
of  speaking  they  are  satisfied  to  make  loose  ar- 
ticulations, approximately  correct  placements  of 
the  lips,  teeth  and  tongue.  To  Illustrate  con- 
cretely, they  may  articulate  the  "f"  in  "fine" 
so  indefinitely  that  the  listener  understands  the 
word  to  be  "pine";  or  their  "t"  and  "th"  sounds 
are  so  slightly  distinguished  that  their  "thanks" 
are  apt  to  pass  for  "tanks."  Now  the  simple  fact 
to  be  observed  Is  that  the  consonants  of  a  lan- 
guage can  be  produced  in  only  one  way,  and  that 
with  exactness  and  energy  in  the  placing  of  the 
lips,  teeth  or  tongue  as  the  case  may  require.  It 
is  not  enough  to  be  approximately  correct.  It  Is 
possible,  of  course,  to  articulate  so  precisely,  so 
"nicely,"  as  to  sound  aflfected,  but  such  an  un- 
fortunate result  of  carefulness  Is  so  rare  as  to  be 
negligible.  Certainly  it  Is  not  a  danger  of  such 
magnitude  as  to  excuse  or  explain  the  slovenliness 


The  Voice  Factor  179 

of  modern  American  speech.  And,  for  the  public 
speaker,  indistinctness,  or  any  other  speech  de- 
fect, is  likely  to  spell  failure.  Demosthenes  was 
not  thinking  of  his  health  when  he  used  to  practice 
speaking  with  pebbles  in  his  mouth  to  overcome 
a  stammer. 

C.  Modulation 

Regard  for  distinctness  is  scarcely  more  essen- 
tial to  effective  speaking  than  is  careful  attention 
to  quality,  pitch  and  volume  of  voice,  and  rate  of 
utterance.  We  shall  consider  these  factors  with 
a  view  to  securing  the  most  pleasing,  clear  and 
forceful  expression  of  the  speaker's  thoughts  and 
emotions. 

I.  Pleasing  Expression 

a.   Foice  Quality 

Pleasing  vocal  expression  Is  clear  and  resonant 
in  quality,  and  varying  within  moderate  limits  of 
pitch,  volume  and  rate.  A  clear  and  resonant 
voice  quality  depends  largely  upon  an  open  throat 
and  unobstructed  nasal  passages.  If  the  speaker 
"talks  in  his  throat,"  he  is  constricting  the  flexible 
walls  of  the  voice-box  and  throat,  with  the  Inevi- 
table result  of  husklness,  harshness,  and  a  lack  of 
carrying  power.  If  he  "talks  through  his  nose" 
(as  the  popular  expression  mislcadlngly  puts  it), 


l8o    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

he  is,  in  reality,  closing  the  nasal  passages  so  that 
little  or  no  air  can  escape  by  way  of  the  nostrils. 
This  results  in  the  same  disagreeable  sound  as  is 
produced  by  speaking  with  the  nostrils  pinched 
together.  If  the  student  is  troubled  with  either  a 
throaty  or  nasal  voice,  he  can  Improve  his  quality 
by  exercise  on  the  vowels  a-e-i-o-u  with  a  view 
to  producing  clear,  open  tones  which  get  their 
resonance  well  up  In  the  back  of  the  mouth  and 
in  the  nasal  chambers  without  any  strain  on  the 
throat. 

Fortunately  no  unusual,  "professional"  kind 
of  voice  is  desirable  for  pleasing,  and  otherwise 
effective,  public  address.  The  normal  quality  Is 
emphatically  the  best.  As  soon  as  a  speaker 
begins  with  a  hollow,  stilted,  "oratorical"  tone 
which  goes  with,  "Let  us  stretch  our  ears  back 
and  listen  to  the  distant  rumblings  through  the 
corridors  of  time," — the  audience  tends  to  go  to 
sleep  or  leave  the  room.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
quality  which  pleases  an  audience  is  the  sincere, 
natural  quality  which  a  person  would  use  in  an 
interesting  discussion  with  a  friend.  Even  if  one 
is  speaking  in  a  large  auditorium,  the  added  carry- 
ing power  should  be  given  by  increasing  the  force 
and  speaking  with  especial  distinctness — not  by 
changing  to  a  bellowing  orotund. 


The  Voice  Factor  i8l 

b.  Inflection 

To  produce  a  pleasing  Impression,  the  inflection, 
i.  e.,  the  raising  and  lowering  of  pitcli,  should  be 
within  moderate  limits — neither  so  low  that  the 
words  cannot  be  easily  heard,  nor  ever  reaching  a 
height  where  shrillness  begins  and  the  voice  is 
liable  to  break.  At  the  same  time,  the  tone  should 
be  kept  moving,  irregularly  of  course,  in  keeping 
with  the  sense,  up  and  down  the  scale  to  avoid 
monotony.  Here  again  no  better  standard  can 
be  suggested  than  a  slight  extension  of  the  range 
employed  by  the  interested  participants  in  a 
conversation.  The  desirability  of  making  the  in- 
flection more  marked  than  in  ordinary  conversa- 
tion is,  first,  that  the  speaker  is  usually  farther 
from  his  listeners;  and,  secondly,  that  the  ex- 
tended range  of  inflection  helps  to  express  the  vital 
interest  which  the  speaker  must  employ  in  order 
to  arouse  and  sustain  the  real  attention  of  his  lis- 
teners. It  might  be  supposed,  perhaps,  that  a 
speaker  who  has  the  proper  interest  in  his  subject 
and  audience  will  naturally  use  a  bright  and  at- 
tractive pitch  modulation.  If  he  does,  it  is  well. 
But  in  many  cases  persons  whose  modulations  in 
private  conversation  are  all  that  could  be  desired 
become  hollow  in  voice  quality,  monotonous  in 
pitch  and  rate,  and  ineffective  in  emphasis  when 
brought  face  to  face  with  an   audience.     If  the 


1 82     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

student  of  speaking  can,  therefore,  keep  constantly 
before  him  the  idea  that  he  is  not  to  "orate  at" 
his  auditors,  but  to  talk  interestingly  to  them,  his 
pitch  and  many  other  things,  noted  throughout 
the  book,  will  be  greatly  helped. 

c.  Force  and  Rate 

Among  other  things  pleasingly  regulated  by  a 
slightly  modified  conversational  style  of  address 
are  force  and  rate.  Naturally,  the  volume  should 
be  somewhat  greater  in  public  address  than  in 
ordinary  conversation,  and  the  rate  a  little  slower. 
It  is  distinctly  annoying  to  an  audience  to  listen 
to  a  speaker  whose  voice  is  so  lacking  in  force 
(volume)  that  a  constant  strain  is  necessary  in 
order  to  hear  what  he  says.  Quite  as  displeasing 
is  the  speaker  who  talks  loudly,  as  if  he  were  ad- 
dressing a  company  of  deaf  people.  Even  an 
occasionally  stentorian  outburst  is  to  be  avoided, 
for  the  speaker  who  pleases  never  shouts.  Neither 
does  he  rush  through  his  sentences,  nor  drag  out 
his  words,  one  by  one. 

We  have  seen  that  the  essentials  of  attractive 
speaking  are:  a  clear,  resonant,  normal  quality  of 
voice;  pitch,  force  and  rate  conversational,  with 
the  first  somewhat  more  extended  in  range,  the 
second  slightly  increased,  and  the  last  slightly 
decreased;  and  a  general  avoidance  of  extremes. 


The  Voice  Factor  183 

We  may  next  consider  the  appHcation  of  vocal 
factors  to  clear  and  forceful  speaking. 

11.  Clear  and  Forceful  Expression 

In  discussing  clear  and  forceful  expression  our 
concern  is  with  specific  modulations  of  quality, 
pitch,  force  and  rate  which  will  best  convey  to 
the  listeners  the  thought  and  feeling  of  the  speaker. 

a.  Modulations  of  Quality 

First,  as  to  occasional  variations  from  the  nor- 
mal quality  of  voice.  There  are  times  when  the 
speaker  wishes  to  arouse  in  his  listeners  a  certain 
emotion.  His  own  feeling  is  the  basis  of  influence, 
but  his  vocal  expression  can  do  much  to  infuse 
the  audience.  If,  for  example,  a  person  were  de- 
nouncing a  vicious  breach  of  trust,  or  any  repre- 
hensible person  or  thing,  it  would  be  natural  and 
effective  if  he  conveyed  his  intense  anger  by  a 
so-called  guttural  (throaty)  quality  of  voice. 
Again,  if  he  has  in  the  course  of  his  speech  been 
lifted  to  an  attitude  of  awe  or  reverence,  this 
emotion  is  much  more  apt  to  spread  through  the 
audience  if  his  voice  is  full,  round  and  sonorous, 
in  harmony  with  the  dignity  of  the  feeling.  Take, 
for  instance,  such  a  sentiment  as  is  expressed  in 
Kipling's  "Recessional." 


184    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

"God  of  our  fathers,  known  of  old, 
Lord  of  our  far-flung  battle  line, 
Beneath  whose  awful  hand  we  hold 
Dominion  over  palm  and  pine. 
Lord  God  of  hosts  be  with  us  yet. 
Lest  we  forget,  lest  we  forget,"  etc. 

If  the  reader  will  try  this  with  the  normal,  con- 
versational voice,  he  will  at  once  realize  why  a 
variation  of  tone  quality  is  essential  when  such 
lofty  sentiments  are  expressed. 

Another  occasion  warranting  a  departure  from 
the  normal  quality  is  an  intensely  emphatic  climax. 
The  usual  method  of  procedure  is  to  use  the  normal 
tone,  steadily  increasing  the  volume  to  the  very 
end  of  the  passage.  But  a  very  effective  variation 
of  this  means  of  expressing  intensity  is  to  change 
at  the  climax  to  a  whisper.  This  is  a  striking 
device,  and,  like  the  other  changes  of  quality  noted 
in  this  section,  is  rarely  called  for.  The  speaker 
should,  however,  be  familiar  with  them  all  when 
occasion  does  arise. 

b.  Modulations  of  Pitch  and  Force 

Unlike  quality  variations,  modulations  of  pitch 
and  force  are  constant.  This  fact  has  already 
been  noted  in  the  discussion  of  attractive  speak- 
ing; but  concerning  their  application  to  clear  and 


The  Voice  Factor  185 

forceful  expression,  it  is  desirable  to  point  out 
certain  additional  facts.  The  slightly  intensified 
conversational  style  of  address  previously  advo- 
cated will  take  care  of  the  rising  pitch-increasing 
force  incident  to  the  approach  toward  stressed 
words,  and  the  corresponding  lowering-decreasing 
after  these  words.  It  need  only  be  stated  that 
speakers  frequently  fail  to  make  these  modulations 
sufficiently  pronounced,  with  the  result  that  the 
audience  does  not  get  the  full  meaning,  and  is 
not  duly  impressed  by  the  important  words. 

Moreover,  it  is  a  common  thing  to  hear  speakers 
who,  though  they  may  bring  out  the  important 
words  in  sentences,  do  not  attempt  to  make  sig- 
nificant sentences  stand  out  from  sections,  nor 
to  heighten  the  eflfect  of  especially  noteworthy 
phases  of  the  speech  considered  as  a  whole.  Thus 
to  express  all  parts  on  a  dead  level  is  a  weakness 
because  practically  every  address  contains  cer- 
tain sentences  and  groups  of  sentences  which  the 
speaker  considers  particularly  vital.  The  fault 
may  be  remedied  in  two  ways:  by  coming  out 
strong  and  with  a  somewhat  heightened  pitch  at 
vital  points;  or  by  delivering  such  passages  with 
an  exactly  opposite  change  from  the  normal,  i.  e., 
with  a  low  pitch  modulation  and  a  very  subdued 
degree  of  force. 


l86    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

c.  Modulations  of  Rate 

In  contributing  toward  clearness  and  emphasis, 
variations  of  rate  are  also  of  importance.  Recall- 
ing what  has  already  been  said  about  the  desira- 
bility of  a  deliberate  general  style  of  speaking,  we 
may  proceed  to  point  out  when  modulations  from 
the  normal  rate  are  advantageous.  First,  when- 
ever the  discussion  is  necessarily  complex  and 
difficult  for  the  listener  to  follow;  whenever  the 
speaker  wishes  to  impress  the  audience  with  the 
idea  of  slow  movement,  profundity,  or  vastness; 
whenever  it  is  desirable  to  create  distinct  and 
separate  impressions,  either  of  concrete  things  or 
abstract  ideas  which  are  grouped  in  composition — 
in  all  these  instances  a  markedly  slow  rate  makes 
for  both  clearness  and  forcefulness. 

Somewhat  akin  to  slow  rate,  and  employed  with 
the  aim  of  securing  a  similar  but  more  intense 
effect,  is  the  emphatic  pause.  This  device,  no- 
ticeably neglected  by  beginners,  is  among  the  most 
striking  means  of  emphasis.  Coming  just  before 
the  significant  word  or  statement,  the  pause  In- 
tensifies the  attention  in  anticipation  of  what  Is 
to  follow.  Following  Immediately  after  the 
stressed  expression,  the  pause  turns  the  thought 
of  the  audience  back  upon  the  Important  Idea. 
The  combination  of  pause  before  and  after  the 
significant  statement  Is  especially  telling. 


The  Voice  Factor  187 

On  the  other  hand  if  at  certain  stages  the  speech- 
matter  is  relatively  obvious  or  of  slight  signifi- 
cance, such  as  a  bit  of  humor  or  a  parenthesis;  if 
rapidity  of  action  is  presented,  or  excitement  of 
any  kind  is  depicted,  or  indulged  in  purposely  by 
the  speaker;  if  it  is  desired  to  get  a  stirring  cumula- 
tive effect  from  a  compact  series  of  images  or 
ideas — In  such  cases  the  rate  should  be  accelerated. 

D.  Summary 

The  present  chapter  has  emphasized  three  es- 
sentials regarding  the  use  of  the  voice:  correct 
pronunciation,  distinct  speaking,  and  pleasing, 
clear  and  forceful  expression  of  thought  and  feel- 
ing. With  reference  to  the  first  requisite.  It  was 
pointed  out  that  poor  pronunciation  on  the  part 
of  the  speaker  tends  to  lessen  that  respect  and 
confidence  which  are  so  necessary  to  his  success. 
In  order  to  minimize  errors,  the  student  was  ad- 
vised to  keep  checking  up  his  pronunciation  with 
that  of  people  who  use  the  language  well,  and  to 
consult  the  dictionary  for  all  cases  of  diflference 
noted.  Further,  the  student  was  urged  never  to 
neglect  settling  his  mind  at  once  whenever  uncer- 
tainty as  to  the  pronunciation  of  a  word  arises. 
Finally,  a  warning  was  given  against  the  faulty 
pronunciation  caused  by  carelessness  in  enun- 
ciating the  vowel  sounds. 


l88     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

In  considering  indistinctness,  we  noted  that  the 
difficulty  was  due  mainly  to  the  following  faults: 
(i)  running  words  together,  which  can  usually 
be  avoided  by  speaking  at  a  moderate  rate;  (2) 
speaking  in  the  throat,  which  can  be  overcome 
by  making  sufficient  eflfort  to  raise  the  tone  into 
the  pharynx  and  nasal  chambers,  and  to  articulate 
properly;  (3)  speaking  with  the  mouth  closed,  a 
fault  which  can  be  cured  by  cultivating  the  habit 
of  opening  the  lips  in  the  utterance  of  vowel 
sounds;  (4)  bad  articulation,  which  in  rare  cases  is 
due  to  physical  defects  or  absolutely  wrong  posi- 
tions of  the  organs  of  articulation,  but  chiefly 
to  the  all-too-common  satisfaction  with  approxi- 
mately correct  positions.  Emphasis  was  put  upon 
the  necessity  of  avoiding  carelessness,  and  of 
making  each  consonant  with  absolute  accuracy. 

Modulation  of  voice  was  discussed,  first,  with 
reference  to  pleasing  speech,  and  secondly,  with 
regard  to  clear  and  forceful  speech.  The  student 
was  advised  to  secure  the  former  by  using  a  clear, 
resonant  normal  quality,  a  constantly  varying 
Inflection  (change  of  pitch),  following  the  style 
employed  in  conversation  but  somewhat  more 
extended  In  range,  force  applied  as  in  conversa- 
tion but  somewhat  greater  in  amount,  and  rate 
slightly  slower  than  conversational. 

To  express  thought  and  feeling  clearly  and 
forcibly,  certain  modulations  other  than  the  con- 


The  Voice  Factor  189 

veisational  ones  are  occasionally  needed.  The 
normal  quality  of  voice  is  in  most  cases  most  de- 
sirable, but  for  some  purposes,  such  as  indicating 
intense  anger,  a  striking  climax,  awe  or  reverence, 
the  guttural,  the  whisper  and  the  orotund  are, 
respectively,  more  expressive.  For  bringing  out 
vitally  significant  points,  the  speaker  was  advised 
to  use  a  noticeable  variation  from  the  normal 
force  and  pitch,  either  by  increasing  the  former 
and  raising  the  latter,  or  by  doing  just  the  op- 
posite. Special  modulations  of  rate  for  clearness 
and  emphasis  were  also  noted:  the  markedly  slow 
rate  to  present  complex  thoughts,  or  to  convey 
the  impression  of  profundity,  vastness  or  dis- 
tinctness; the  pause  as  a  striking  means  of  em- 
phasis; and  an  accelerated  rate  for  delivering  pas- 
sages of  slight  significance,  for  suggesting  rapidity 
of  action  or  excitement,  or  for  getting  a  stirring 
effect  from  a  compact  series  of  images  or  ideas. 
It  is  desirable  to  add,  in  closing,  that  the  aim 
throughout  the  chapter  has  been  to  emphasize 
the  fact  that  a  normal,  unaffected  voice,  free  from 
faults  and  modulated  substantially  as  in  ani- 
mated conversation,  is  the  standard  for  eifectivc- 
ness. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

EXPRESSIVE  GESTURE 

That  gesture,  or  visible  expression,  is  a  valuable 
aid  to  the  voice  in  conveying  a  speaker's  message 
to  his  audience  is  universally  admitted.  It  is  fre- 
quently contended,  however,  that  the  study  of 
gesture  is  more  or  less  futile.  The  crux  of  the 
contention  is  that  gesture  is  something  spon- 
taneous and  that  any  attempt  to  restrict  or  direct 
this  instinctive  impulse  is  damaging  to  real  ex- 
pressiveness. In  view  of  the  "nods  and  becks 
and  wreathed  smiles"  which  we  all  see  in  our 
daily  lives — to  say  nothing  about  the  fists  and 
frowns — there  is  no  question  about  the  spon- 
taneity of  visible  expression.  But  as  has  been 
said  previously  concerning  the  voice,  the  expres- 
siveness which  we  notice  in  offices,  dining-rooms, 
and  back-yards  often  fails  to  materialize  on  the 
speaking  platform.  Apropos  of  this,  Mr.  A.  C. 
Sutherland  has  narrated  a  suggestive  little  inci- 
dent that  runs  somewhat  as  follows: 

It  appears  that  a  group  of  amateur  actors  had 
secured  the  services  of  a  kindly-disposed  profes- 
sional to  coach  one  of  their  productions.     In  due 

190 


Expressive  Gesture  191 

time  the  play  was  given,  with  no  Httle  success. 
After  the  final  curtain,  a  rather  pompous  person 
found  his  way  to  the  coach  and  complimented 
him  on  the  performance,  adding,  "But  the  finest 
bit  was  contributed  by  the  little  girl;  any  one 
could  see  that  her  acting  was  nature,  not  art." 
"My  dear  fellow  "  replied  the  somewhat  nettled 
coach,  "I  have  devoted  two  hours  a  day  for  three 
months  to  teach  that  child  how  to  appear  natural 
for  five  minutes." 

If  people  who  address  the  public  would  only 
express  themselves  on  the  platform  even  as  well 
as  they  do  in  animated  private  conversation,  teach- 
ers of  speaking  might  possibly  be  content  to 
forswear  art  and  let  nature  take  Its  course.  In- 
deed, it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  use  of  the  friendly, 
genial,  sincere  attitude,  the  simple,  unaffected 
style  of  composition,  and  the  conversational 
modulations  of  the  voice  will  in  themselves  have 
a  beneficial  influence  on  the  student's  gesture. 
But  a  few  suggestions  may  help  him  to  use  nature 
to  the  best  advantage;  in  other  words,  to  avoid 
certain  things  which  distract  the  attention  of  the 
audience,  and  to  employ  such  gestures  as  will 
strengthen  his  delivery. 

A.  Gesture  Defined 

Gesture  was  referred  to  above  as  "visible  ex- 
pression."   In  a  broad  sense,  then,  it  is  any  means 


192     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

of  appealing  to  the  eye.  This  includes  all  pos- 
tures and  movements  of  the  body,  head,  face, 
limbs  and  hands. 

B.  Normal  Position 

One  of  the  first  things  for  a  speaker  to  acquire 
is  a  good  normal  posture.  The  aim  in  this  respect 
is  partly  to  produce  the  impression  of  ease  and 
poise,  but  more  especially  to  avoid  displeasing 
or  distracting  attitudes.  To  stand  with  chest 
concaved,  arms  akimbo  or  folded,  hands  in  the 
pockets,  or  with  feet  spread  far  apart — any  such 
attitude  tends  to  call  attention  to  the  speaker's 
person,  and  is  therefore  as  undesirable  as  a  so- 
called  "loud"  check  pattern  in  clothes.  A  posi- 
tively good  effect  is  produced,  on  the  other  hand, 
by  the  mere  fact  that  a  speaker's  position  indi- 
cates unobtrusive  self-confidence  and  poise.  Head 
and  chest  erect;  feet  three  or  four  inches  apart, 
one  slightly  advanced;  arms  and  hands  hanging 
easily  at  the  sides — that  represents  the  proper 
position.  It  is  very  simple  and  natural,  and  yet 
awkwardness  on  the  speaking  platform  unfortu- 
nately abounds. 

C.  Shifting  the  Position 

An  occasional  change  of  position  is  desirable, 
furnishing  both  to  speaker  and  audience  a  relief 


Expressive  Gesture  193 

from  the  tiresomeness  of  fixed  posture.  Some- 
times this  shift  will  consist  merely  of  throwing 
the  weight  on  the  advanced  foot  for  the  effect  of 
emphasis  or  intensity,  or  on  the  retired  foot  when 
the  speaker  is  in  a  calm,  deliberative  mood.  Again, 
the  change  may  be  more  marked;  the  speaker  may, 
particularly  when  opening  a  new  phase,  advance 
or  retire  three  or  four  steps.  In  doing  this  there 
should  be  no  shuffling  or  gliding  movements,  but 
natural  steps.  And  in  case  the  speaker  advances 
toward  the  left  or  right  rather  than  directly  for- 
ward, care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  an  awkward 
crossing  of  the  feet. 

D.  Expression  with  the  Head  and  Face 

In  reference  to  expression  with  the  head  and 
face,  the  injunction,  "Be  natural,"  applies  with 
particular  force.  Rigidity,  or  constant  turning, 
or  excessive  noddingof  the  head  are  to  be  eschewed. 
The  eyes  of  the  speaker  are  to  be  kept  on  the  eyes 
of  his  auditors,  just  as  in  conversation.  As  in 
conversation,  also,  he  should  give  his  features  full 
play  in  the  expression  of  his  thoughts  and  emo- 
tions. Or,  rather,  the  expressiveness  of  mouth 
and  eyes  will  oftentimes  be  more  marked  than  in 
conversation,  in  order  to  harmonize  with  the  more 
animated  or  intense  style  of  address  which  is  or- 
dinarily required  of  the  public  speaker.  Above 
all  things,  the  dull,  wooden    countenance  which 


194    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

never  smiles,  nor  frowns,  nor  lifts  an  eyebrow, 
nor  compresses  the  lips  is  to  be  avoided.  For  in- 
fluencing an  audience,  the  voice  itself  has  scarcely 
the  power  which  is  inherent  in  an  expressive  coun- 
tenance. 

E.  Gestures  of  the  Arms  and  Hands 

We  come  now  to  that  phase  of  visible  expression 
which  is  least  likely  to  be  effectively  directed  by 
natural  impulse — gestures  of  the  arms  and  hands. 
Undoubtedly  the  impulse  to  use  the  arms  exists 
in  most  speakers;  but  the  results  are  In  many 
cases  far  from  satisfactory.  With  some  persons 
the  Impulse  is  manifested  In  a  mere  succession  of 
little  jerks  of  the  hand;  with  others  It  Is  converted 
into  one  or  two  full  gestures  which  are  used  with 
wearying  monotony  for  all  purposes;  again,  the 
Impulse  leads  the  speaker  Into  absolutely  mis- 
leading motions,  or  a  constant  threshing  about 
with  the  arms,  or  various  other  futilities.  In  the 
field  of  manual  gesture,  therefore,  a  little  knowl- 
edge of  the  real  possibilities,  as  evinced  by  good 
speakers  and  open  to  the  test  of  common  sense, 
should  be  helpful. 

I.  Manual  Gestures  and  Common  Sense 

Let  us  first  inquire,  from  a  practical  viewpoint, 
just  what  people   attempt,  either   consciously  or 


Expressive  Gesture  195 

unconsciously,  when  they  make  gestures  with 
the  hands  in  ordinary  intercommunication.  The 
angered  schoolboy  threatens  to  "smash"  his  op- 
ponent's face,  and  displays  his  extended  list. 
The  preacher  appeals  to  heaven,  and  raises  his 
hands  toward  the  sky.  The  enthusiastic  fisher- 
man in  recounting  the  capture  of  a  "whopping" 
bass  spreads  his  hands  widely  apart.  The  proud 
farmer  informs  the  stranger  that  he  owns  all  the 
land  in  sight,  accompanying  his  words  with  a 
broad  sweep  of  the  hand.  A  foreman,  directing 
the  engineer  of  a  steam  crane,  turns  his  palm 
down  and  motions  downward  if  he  wants  the 
tackle  lowered.  An  irate  old  father,  terminating 
a  heated  argument  with  his  rebellious  son,  thumps 
the  desk  as  he  delivers  a  paternal  ultimatum. 
What  are  all  these  people  trying  to  do.^"  Clearly, 
to  express  by  suggestive  motions  the  scene,  action, 
thought  or  feeling  about  which  they  are  speaking. 
.These  are  typical,  natural  gestures,  and  it  will 
hardly  be  denied  that  they  add  materially  to  the 
vividness,  clearness  and  force  of  the  accompanying 
verbal  expression.  The  listener  (and  observer) 
understands  them — they  mean  something  to  him 
because  they  are  the  motions  that  he,  or  anybody 
else,  might  make  under  similar  circumstances. 
Well,  that  is  all  that  is  required  of  the  gestures 
used  by  the  public  speaker;  they  must  really 
mean  something.     When  he  says  that  "the  whole 


196    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

country  is  suffering  from  a  car  shortage,"  he  will 
give  a  much  clearer  suggestion  of  extent  by  a 
broad  sweep  than  by  a  little  jerk  of  the  hand  in 
the  region  of  the  hip.  If  he  says  the  jury  "must" 
acquit  his  client,  he  will  show  much  stronger  con- 
viction by  swinging  his  fist  down  than  by  merely 
lifting  his  hand  to  the  level  of  the  waist  and  letting 
it  drop  to  the  side. 

II.   The  Scope  of  Manual  Gestures 

The  following  sections  indicate  the  general 
scope  of  manual  gestures,  of  which  the  preceding 
paragraph  gave  specific  examples.  It  is  to  be 
noted  that  under  the  various  classifications  no 
distinction  is  made  between  that  which  is  ma- 
terial, and  that  which  is  intellectual  or  emotional. 
Gestures,  being  purely  physical,  derive  their 
power  to  suggest  ideas  only  by  virtue  of  the 
analogy  between  ideas  and  material  things  or 
actions.  For  example,  a  noble  aim  is  suggested 
by  a  high  gesture  because  It  is  analogous  to  a  lofty 
tower,  let  us  say;  likewise,  the  Inverted  palm  can 
convey  the  idea  of  emotional  restraint  because 
it  Is  a  common  sign  of  physical  restraint.  In 
considering  the  scope  of  gesture  the  student  will 
do  well  to  bear  in  mind  this  significant  observa- 
tion. 


Expressive  Gesture  197 

a.  Forms  of  the  Hand 

The  hand  itself  is  capable  of  various  forms,  each 
of  which  suggests  distinct  impressions,  especially 
in  conjunction  with  speech. 

1.  The  upturned  palm  addresses,  presents,  af- 

firms,   permits,    shows    openness    and    ge- 
niality. 

2.  The  inverted  palm  covers,  suppresses,  pro- 

hibits, indicates  secrecy  and  negation. 

3.  The    index    finger    warns,    threatens,    points 

out,     emphasizes     and     isolates     specific 
things. 

4.  The  palm    turned    outward    at  an    angle  to 

the  wrist  drives  away,  and  indicates  op- 
position or  abhorrence. 

5.  The  clenched  fist  defies,  challenges,  denotes 

intensity,  determination,  or  extreme  em- 
phasis. 

b.  Positions  of  the  Hand 

Not  only  do  the  forms  of  the  hand  convey  dis- 
tinctly varying  impressions,  but  so  also  do  the 
positions  of  the  hand  with  respect  to  the  body. 

1.  The  gesture  may  be  terminated   above  the 

line  of  the  shoulders  to  denote  elevation 
of  any  sort,  physical,  mental  or  emotional. 

2.  It  may  be  made  below  the  waist  line  to  con- 

vey the  impression  of  low  position,  base- 


198     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

ness,  weakness,  in  short  anything  Hterally 
or  figuratively  low. 
3.  The  gesture  may  be  terminated  between  the 
shoulder   and    waist    lines    to   express    all 
those  matters  which  Involve  neither  eleva- 
tion  or    lowness.     This    middle    plane    is 
most    frequently   used    since    it   expresses 
such  commonly  recurring  matters  as  ex- 
tent In  time  or  space,  numbers,  presenta- 
tion,   analysis,   direct    address,   and    ordi- 
nary   reference    to    persons,    places    and 
things. 
It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  hand,  in  addition  to 
moving  Into  a  high,  low,  or  middle  position,  is 
either  directed  forward  or  Is  passed  from  the  front 
in  a  lateral  direction.     This  distinction  between 
a  front  and  a  lateral  movement  can  also  be  used 
to  advantage. 

1.  The  front  gestures,  being  directly  toward  the 

audience,  are  particularly  emphatic,  and 
being  nearer  the  audience,  are  best  calcu- 
lated to  suggest  nearness  In  space  or  time, 
limited  numbers  or  extent. 

2.  The    lateral    gestures.    In    which    the    hand 

moves  from  the  front  toward  the  side, 
create  the  Impression  of  great  extent,  large 
numbers,  distance  In  time  or  space,  or 
Incluslveness. 


Expressive  Gesture  199 

c.   Using  Both  Hands 

For  gestures  with  any  of  the  hand  forms  in  any 
position,  both  hands  may  be  employed  to  give 
expression  to  especial  intensity  of  thought  or 
emotion.  The  use  of  both  hands  is  helpful  also 
in  depicting  such  concepts  as  comparison,  con- 
trast, vastness,  separation,  collecting,  balance, 
and  opposition. 

III.  Essential  Characteristics  of  Effective   Gesture 

Whether  gestures  be  double  or  single  handed, 
high,  middle  or  low,  front  or  lateral,  there  are 
certain  characteristics  which  are  essential  to  their 
effectiveness.  They  must  be  apt,  accurately 
timed  and  spontaneous. 

a.  Aptness 

In  saying,  ''Suit  the  action  to  the  word,  the 
word  to  the  action,"  Hamlet  gave,  in  effect,  a 
broad  definition  of  aptness.  More  specifically,  it 
means  a  discriminating  use  of  the  various  hand 
forms  and  positions.  For  example,  a  lofty  con- 
cept, such  as  honor,  sacrcdness,  triumph,  or  a 
reference  to  physical  elevation  finds  expression 
in  a  high  gesture.  An  insistence  on  a  specific 
point  is  italicized,  as  it  were,  by  the  index  finger. 
A  portrayal  of  hopelessness  or  submission  is  sug- 


200    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

gested  by  a  low  gesture.  One  may  be  sure  that 
when  Hamlet  gave  that  excellent  advice  to  the 
players,  he  did  not  mean  to  advocate  a  different 
gesture  for  every  varying  thought  and  feeling. 
Such  a  method  of  visible  expression  would  put 
upon  the  speaker  an  enormous  and  ridiculous 
burden.  Fortunately,  nothing  of  the  kind  is  con- 
templated. As  the  foregoing  classifications  indi- 
cate, many  different  things  can  be  suggested  by 
substantially  the  same  gesture.  For  instance,  a 
clenched  fist  in  a  forward  position  is  appropriate 
to  an  expression  of  physical  force,  emphatic  asser- 
tion, determination,  defiance  and  challenge;  a 
low  gesture  is  in  harmony  with  a  reference  to  weak- 
ness, submission,  depravity,  low  position,  hope- 
lessness and  kindred  matters.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  equally  true  that  a  gesture  which  is  in  keep- 
ing with  a  certain  mood,  or  type  of  idea  may  be 
very  inappropriate  for  certain  other  moods  or 
types.  An  appeal  for  friendly  co-operation  would 
be  poorly  expressed  by  a  wave  of  the  inverted 
palm.  Aptness,  then,  requires  that  a  gesture  be 
used,  not  as  a  mere  irrelevant  accompaniment  of 
words  but  rather  as  something  which  actually 
co-operates  with  them. 

b.  Accuracy  of  Timing 

The  second  essential,  accuracy  of  timing,  ap- 
phes   to   what   may   be   called   the   mechanics  of 


Expressive  Gesture  201 

gesture.  Practically  every  gesture  of  the  hands 
consists  of  three  parts:  raising  the  hand  in  prep- 
aration, the  gesture  proper,  and  the  dropping  of 
the  hand  to  normal  position.  To  time  a  gesture 
accurately,  the  preparatory  part  must  be  de- 
liberately completed  in  time  for  the  gesture  proper 
to  move  on  the  word  or  word  group  which  the 
action  is  intended  to  support.  The  two  parts  are 
ordinarily  made  in  one  continuous  movement; 
but  a  particularly  emphatic  effect,  similar  to  that 
produced  by  the  vocal  pause,  may  be  secured  by 
sustaining  the  hand  several  instants  just  before 
the  stroke,  or  gesture  proper.  The  hand  may  be 
held  in  position  at  the  close  of  the  stroke  also,  for 
the  sake  of  fastening  the  attention  of  the  audience 
upon  the  thought  just  expressed.  Even  when 
special  emphasis  is  not  desired  there  should  always 
be  a  brief  sustentation  at  the  end  of  the  stroke 
before  the  hand  relaxes. 

Two  or  three  typical  instances  of  timing  a  ges- 
ture may  be  of  service  at  this  point.  Let  us  take 
the  sentence,  "The  sponsors  of  the  plan  must 
meet  their  obligations."  The  upward,  preparatory 
movement  is  made  with  the  words,  "of  the  plan," 
so  as  to  be  ready  for  the  down  stroke  on  "must," 
after  which  the  hand  is  relaxed.  Again,  on  such  a 
sentence  as,  "Across  a  weary  desert  the  caravan 
slowly  moved,"  the  preparatory  part  must  antici- 
pate the  first  word  because  the  stroke  continues 


202     The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

throughout  the  entire  statement.  As  a  final 
example,  we  shall  take  an  instance  requiring  ges- 
tures in  a  series,  such  as,  "The  people  of  this  city, 
the  people  of  this  state,  the  people  of  this  nation — 
all  will  benefit  hy  this  measure."  The  important 
additional  observation  for  cases  of  this  kind  is 
that  the  four  strokes,  on  "city,"  "state,"  "na- 
tion," and  "all,"  should  proceed  from  one  to  an- 
other without  dropping  the  hand  to  the  side  until 
the  end  of  the  series. 

c.  Spontaneity 

Spontaneity,  the  last  characteristic  to  be  dis- 
cussed, is  first  in  importance.  A  gesture  may 
now  and  then  be  inapt,  or  badly  timed  and  pass 
unnoticed,  providing  it  is  sufficiently  spontaneous 
to  be  wholly  subordinate  to  the  thought  of  the 
speaker.  But  let  a  gesture  appear  calculated, 
artificial,  made-to-order,  and  the  efi"ect  is  bad, 
for  the  audience  will  see  the  gesture  and  the  efi"ect 
of  the  thought  will  naturally  be  discounted. 
Would  It  not  be  better,  then,  to  forego  any  at- 
tempt to  study  gesture?  The  detractors  cry 
"Hear!  Hear!"  Certainly  no  sane  teacher  is 
going  to  claim  that  a  student  of  extempore  speak- 
ing can  give  much  thought  to  his  gesture  while 
attending  to  his  composition  and  his  audience. 
The  reader  should  remember,  however,  that  a 
person  is  not  obliged  to  learn  a  specific  gesture  for 


Expressive  Gesture  203 

each  individual  statement.  He  learns  certain 
forms  and  positions,  together  with  general  types 
of  impression  which  these  gestures  are  best  fitted 
to  convey.  For  instance  he  learns  that  a  broad 
sweep  gives  the  impression  of  large  extent  or 
magnitude,  and  whether  in  a  given  speech  he  refers 
to  vast  sums  of  money,  or  great  stretches  of  coun- 
try, or  huge  contracts,  or  enormous  crowds  of 
people,  he  knows  how  to  act.  Practice,  which 
associates  the  various  kinds  of  gesture  with  the 
different  types  of  thought  and  emotion,  tells  the 
rest  of  the  story.  What  is  claimed,  then,  is  that 
gestures  can  be  cultivated  in  practice  speaking 
so  that  when  a  person  stands  before  an  audience 
his  natural  impulses  to  make  gesture  are  turned 
instinctively,  not  into  mere  action,  but  into  ex- 
pressive action. 

F.  Summary 

We  have  noted  in  this  chapter  that  the  desira- 
bility of  studying  and  practicing  gesture  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  a  person's  natural  expressiveness, 
however  unsatisfactory  that  may  be  under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances,  tends  to  become 
even  more  restricted  and  awkward  in  front  of  an 
audience.  The  suggestions  embodied  in  the  chap- 
ter concerned  posture,  expressions  with  the  head 
and  face,  manual  gestures,  and  the  essential  char- 
acteristics of  eflFective  gesture. 


204    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

The  speaker  was  advised  to  stand  with  head  and 
chest  erect,  feet  sHghtly  separated,  with  one  ad- 
vanced three  or  four  inches,  and  arms  at  the  sides. 
Occasional  shifts  of  weight  to  the  retired  or  ad- 
vanced foot  were  advised;  also  a  change  of  place 
on  the  platform  now  and  then.  In  all  cases,  a 
change  of  position  should  be  free  from  constraint, 
since  that  induces  awkwardness  and  attracts  atten- 
tion. The  speaker  was  next  warned  against  ex- 
cessive nodding  or  turning  of  the  head,  and  urged 
to  keep  his  eyes  constantly  upon  the  eyes  of  his 
auditors  and  to  give  free  play  to  facial  expression. 
With  reference  to  gestures  with  the  arms  and 
hands,  typical  examples  of  both  inexpressive  and 
expressive  movements  were  presented.  This  was 
followed  by  a  tabulation  of  the  various  forms  and 
positions  of  the  hands,  with  the  general  scope  of 
expression  for  each.  Aptness,  accuracy  of  timing, 
and  spontaneity  were  then  discussed  as  the  chief 
characteristics  of  effective  gestures. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
CONCLUSION 

The  final  word  of  advice  is — practice!  Speak 
at  every  opportunity!  If  your  situation  does  not 
allow  frequent  chances,  make  them  by  joining  a 
club,  class,  social,  business  or  professional  associa- 
tion which  will  afford  occasions  for  applying  the 
principles  advocated  in  the  foregoing  pages! 

A  few  specific  suggestions  relative  to  practice 
may  be  useful  to  those  who  are  inexperienced. 
In  the  first  place,  careful  investigation  and  or- 
ganization, as  set  forth  in  the  chapter  on  prepara- 
tion, are  always  requisite.  In  the  second  place, 
it  is  best  to  talk  on  relatively  easy  subjects  at 
first,  preferably  those  which  can  be  developed  in 
greater  part  by  narration  or  description,  such  as 
personal  experiences,  scenes,  pictures,  plots  of 
plays  or  novels,  biographies,  or  historical  accounts. 
If  exposition  or  argument  is  undertaken,  the 
topic  should  not  be  a  complex  one,  but  rather  an 
exposition  of  a  simple  machine,  structure,  or 
process,  or  an  argument  on  a  k)cal  or  otherwise 
familiar  proposition.     Thirdly,  the  inexperienced 

20S 


2o6    The  Essentials  of  Extempore  Speaking 

speaker  should  not  try  to  build  up  or  revise  his 
method  of  speaking  by  an  attempt  to  follow  all 
the  advice  at  once.  It  is  better  to  work  first,  let 
us  say,  for  a  clear  purpose,  definite  points,  solidity 
of  elaboration,  and  fairness  of  attitude  toward  the 
subject;  then  for  unity,  coherence,  clearness  and 
force;  next  for  attractiveness  in  composition;  then 
for  flexibility  of  response  to  the  reactions  of  the 
audience.  By  this  time,  or  perhaps  before,  the 
speaker  will  be  sufficiently  free  on  the  platform  to 
make  his  personality  felt. 

The  above  order  of  progress  is  not  fixed,  of 
course,  but  in  advising  some  such  gradual  applica- 
tion of  the  essentials  presented  in  the  text,  I  write 
with  a  realization  of  what  confusion  would  result 
from  trying  to  direct  the  attention  to  a  dozen 
different  things  at  once.  If  the  speaker  uses  the 
method  proposed,  he  will  find  after  a  few  careful 
trials  that  unity,  coherence  and  clearness  tend  to 
become  natural  qualities  of  his  expression.  He 
can  then  give  a  part  of  his  attention  to  attractive- 
ness of  style.  When  this  becomes  more  or  less 
spontaneous,  he  can  devote  himself  more  to  the 
reactions  of  his  audience,  etc. 

A  fourth  suggestion  is  that  the  speaker  refrain 
from  trying  to  make  a  "hit."  He  should  aim  at 
a  clear,  sensible  talk,  not  dry  to  be  sure,  but  free 
from  any  striving  after  brilliancy,  cleverness  or 
profundity.    These  may  come,  perhaps,  as  a  later 


Conclusion  207 

development,    but    they    are    not    of    immediate 
concern. 

Finally,  and  emphatically,  the  student  should 
begin  right  by  trusting  only  to  a  simple  outline 
(preferably  memorized),  such  as  was  illustrated 
in  the  chapter  on  preparation.  Even  hesitation, 
breaks,  weakness  of  phrasing,  in  the  early  efforts, 
are  better  than  elaborate  notes  carried  in  the 
hand.  Once  the  habit  of  depending  on  a  "speaker's 
crutch"  is  formed,  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  be- 
come an  effective  practical  speaker.  A  set  of 
notes  is  undoubtedly  a  barrier  between  speaker 
and  audience.  So,  as  Hamlet  said  to  the  players, 
"Pray  you,  avoid  it." 


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